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A Prize-Winner 



SCHOOL 
AGRICULTURE 

WITH EXPERIMENTS AND 
EXERCISES 

A TEXT-BOOK FOR RURAL AND GRADED SCHOOLS 



By 
MILO N. WOOD 

Principal High School, Pittsville, Wisconsin 



Illustrated 



New York 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN PAUL. TRENCH. TRUBNER & CO.. Limited 

1912 



v^ 



Copyright 1912 by 
Orange Judd Company 



All Rights Reserved 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, England 



Printed in U. S. A. 



r 0, 



t. CI.A» l!)(IKR 



PREFACE iii 



PREFACE 

WE are now in the midst of a great agricultural 
awakening. The population of the United 
States, which is increasing so rapidly as to be 
out of proportion to the increase in farm products, must 
be supplied with food; consequently, more land must 
be cultivated, haphazard methods of farming must be 
abandoned, and better systems along all agricultural 
lines must prevail. The trend of agricultural develop- 
ment is plainly visible. Soils once depleted by systems 
of farming which were the results of ignorance now 
respond to intelligent care by yielding bountiful crops; 
desert lands upon which grew scattering cacti and sage 
brush now produce under irrigation marvelous yields of 
fruit, vegetables, and other products; swamp lands, 
once thought worthless, are being drained and furnish 
homes for thousands of people; even soils that contained 
such large amounts of harmful salts as to make the 
growth of common plants impossible are being acted 
upon by irrigation and drainage until the salts are reduced 
to such an extent that farming is practicable. 

In the past the tillers of the soil longed for the life of 
the city. At the present time, high prices and the 
attractiveness of country life cause city people to long 
for the farm, and "Back to the farm!" is the cry. All 



PREFACE 



of this tends not only to arouse interest in agricultural 
problems, but to demand instruction in agricultural 
methods. A large part of such instruction must be done 
in the schools. The legislatures of a large number of 
states have placed agriculture in the common school 
curriculum as a result of the demands of the people. 
Truly this is a sensible thing to do. Why should not 
some of the time to be spent in school be used in 
acquiring knowledge of a subject which is not only of 
a disciplinary value, but which will help the pupils to 
earn a living? 

While instruction in this subject in graded, and rural 
schools must be of an elementary character, it should 
be sufficiently comprehensive to include most of the 
principles of general agriculture; it should not deal 
entirely with theory; it should include demonstrations 
of practical value; and the subject should be taught so 
as to appeal to the intelligence of the pupil rather than 
to his memory. 

It is for the purpose of promoting these ends that this 
book has been written. Throughout its preparation 
constant thought has been given the subject from the 
teacher's standpoint as well as from the pupil's. It is 
desired to make the work teachable. As the book is 
intended for classes in rural and graded schools, an effort 
has been made to have the language simple enough so 
that the pupils will find no difficulty in understanding 



PREFACE 



the subject matter. Many interesting topics have been 
omitted, but it is hoped that those given are sufficiently 
comprehensive to be of lasting value to the pupil. 

It is believed that the experiments, which follow each 
chapter, will prove of great value in making the subject 
a living subject, in connecting it with the home life of 
the pupil, in arousing the interest of the class, and in 
imparting knowledge of the fundamental principles of 
agriculture. Whether the exercises should precede the 
subject matter and the topics be developed inductively, 
whether they should be worked out in the class period, 
or whether they should follow as a means of illustrating 
principles under consideration, depends upon the class, 
the teacher, the time given to the particular topic, and 
the nature of the topic. The experiments are placed 
where the teacher can use the method best adapted to 
the conditions, and there are enough of them given so 
that selections can be made. It is not possible for most 
schools to have elaborate apparatus. The apparatus and 
materials necessary for performing the experiments 
given are very simple, easily obtained, and inexpensive. 

It is of value to the pupils to make an extensive study 
of some branch of agriculture upon which particular 
attention is needed by people in the community. If 
the school is in an apple district, the growing of apples 
would form a profitable study; if in a potato belt, potato 
growing should be studied; if in a swamp region, the 



PREFACE 



study of drainage would be profitable; if in an irrigated 
section, irrigation should receive special attention. 
Furthermore, it is of importance that the pupils be 
encouraged to read agricultural literature, such as bulle- 
tins farm papers, and books. As an aid to the teacher 
in accomplishing these purposes, a suggestive list of 
reference books follows each chapter. 

Questions like those usually asked at the end of each 
chapter in most text-books of agriculture have been 
omitted, because it is believed that they are of no value 
to the teacher or to the pupils. On the contrary, they 
tend to make the work of the teacher mechanical and 
to discourage originality on the part of the pupil. Neither 
does a summary following each chapter aid to develop 
the thinking power of the pupil. A suggestive outline 
summary follows each chapter when it is deemed advis- 
able to call the pupil's attention to particular points. 
For the most part the outlines are to be prepared by the 
pupil, and only a few suggestions in each case are given, 
to show him what is expected. After a pupil has com- 
pleted an outline of this type, it should prove of assist- 
ance in topic recitations, in his written work on agri- 
culture," and in reviewing. Its value will depend largely 
upon the extent of its use by the teacher. 

A great deal of attention has been given to the illus- 
trations in order to make them of practical use in devel- 
oping the different topics. 



PREFACE vii 

It is hoped that this book will help to bring about a 
closer relation between the community and the school, 
as well as to help make the study of agriculture interesting 
and profitable. 

Thanks are due the following for valuable suggestions, 
or for reading parts of the manuscript: W. A. Henry, 
Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, University of Wis- 
consin; G. H. Drewry, and W. H. Hunt, State School 
Inspectors of Wisconsin ; C. W. Burkett, Editor 
of the American Agriculturist; E. M. Griffith, State 
Forester of Wisconsin; Mary D. Bradford, Superintend- 
ent of the Kenosha Schools; W. E. Smith, Principal of 
the Reedsburg Training School for Teachers. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Orange Judd 
Company for many of the photographs and line drawings, 
also to the United States Department of Agriculture, and 
to the University of Wisconsin for a number of photo- 
graphs. 

Special acknowledgment is due to G. E. Culver, Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry and Geology, and W. F. Lusk, 
Professor of Agriculture and Physics in the State Normal 
School at Stevens Point, for carefully reading and criti- 
cizing the entire manuscript. 

M. N. W. 

Pittsvillle, Wisconsin, March, 1912. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I Soil Formation 1 

II Classes of Soils 10 

III Water in the Soil 16 

IV Drainage 25 

V Irrigation 33 

VI Tillage 41 

VII Plant Foods 49 

VIII How the Legumes Help the Farmer .... 55 

IX Soil Exhaustion and Crop Rotation .... 58 

X The Seed and Germination 65 

XI The Plant 80 

XII Propagation of Plants 96 

XIII Transplanting and Pruning 105 

XIV Plant Enemies 112 

XV The Orchard 123 

XVI Small Fruits .141 

XVII Forestry . 149 

XVIII Farm Stock 157 

XIX Cattle 159 

XX Milk and Its Products 167 

XXI Feeding the Stock 186 

XXII Horses 194 

XXIII Sheep 205 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Chapter Page 

XXIV Swine 212 

XXV Poultry .218 

XXVI Bees 230 

XXVII Birds 239 

XXVIII Farm Implements 245 

XXIX Roads 250 

XXX Beautifying Home and School Grounds . . .261 

XXXI Country Life 272 

Appendix 277 

Index 331 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure Page 

1 A Portion of a Flood Plain 2 

2 Soil Builders at Work 3 

3 Section of Hill Left by Ice Sheet 4 

4 Disintegrating Rock 5 

5 Roots of Trees Breaking Up a Rocky Subsoil 6 

6 Water Rising in Tube by Capillary Attraction 17 

7 Water in the Soil 19 

8 Land Needing Drainage 26 

9 A Large Open Drain 27 

10 Drain Tile in Trench Ready for Covering 28 

1 1 Water Diverted from Stream as Needed 32 

12 Diversion of a Small Stream Into a Reservoir 32 

13 Division Box 34 

14 Check System of Irrigation 35 

15 Depressed Bed System 37 

16 Irrigating a Field 38 

17 Furrow Slices That Are Too Flat 42 

18 A Sod Plow 43 

19 A Stirring Plow 43 

20 Plowing Which Pulverizes the Soil 44 

21 A Harrow . 45 

22 A Farm Roller .. . . 46 

23 Testing the Effect of Plant-Food Materials on Potatoes „ . „ . 50 

24 Effect of Lime on Plants 51 

25 The Waste of Barnyard Manure 52 

26 Arrangement of Plots for Experiment 1 53 

27 Roots of Soy Bean Showing Tubercles 55 

28 Clover Growing in Uninoculated and Inoculated Soils .... 56 

29 A Crop on an Exhausted Soil 59 

30 Cotyledons of Bean 65 

31 Section of a Kernel of Corn 66 

32 A Plate Germinator 67 



xii SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Figure Page 

33 Red Clover Seeds Mixed with Yellow Trefoil 68 

34 The Seed Furnishes Food for the Young Growing Plant ... 69 

35 Tobacco Seedlings from Light, Medium and Heavy Seeds ... 70 

36 Select Cotton Fiber 71 

37 A Desirable Stalk . 72 

38 A Perfect Ear of Corn 73 

39 Two Undesirable Ears 76 

40 Desirable Kernels 77 

41 Ten Prize Ears of Corn 78 

42 Root Hairs of Radish 80 

43 Root Hair with Soil Attached 81 

44 Egg Prepared to Show Osmosis 81 

45 a Tap Root of Alfalfa; b Fibrous Root of Raspberry 82 

46 Cross Section of Oak Stem 83 

47 Longitudinal Section of an Exogenous Stem 83 

48 Potato Plant 84 

49 Section of Leaf 86 

50 Experiment to Show That Leaves Transpire Moisture .... 87 

51 Section of a Cherry Blossom 88 

52 A Typical Stamen 89 

53 Fertilization of the Ovule 90 

54 Strawberry Blossoms 91 

55 Caulicle Marked to Show Growth 92 

56 Stem Marked to Show Growth 93 

57 Layering 96 

58 Mound Layering 97 

59 Some Different Forms of Cuttings . 98 

60 Leaf Cutting 99 

61 Cleft Grafting 99 

62 Whip Grafting of Stem 100 

63 Root Grafting ' 101 

64 Budding 102 

65 Types of Pruning Shears 106 

66 Correct Pruning Of Apple Tree 106 

67 Correct and Incorrect Pruning 107 

68 Progress of Decay Due to Improper Pruning 108 

69 Wrong Method of Cutting Off a Large Limb 108 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 



Figure Page 

70 The Right Way of Removing a Large Limb 109 

71 Insect 112 

72 The Four Stages of Insect Growth (Codling Moth) . . , . 113 

73 Biting Insects 114 

74 Sucking Insects . 115 

75 Making Bordeaux Mixture 116 

76 Annual Weed 118 

77- Biennial Weed 119 

78 A Perennial Weed 120 

79 A Codling Moth Larva and Its Work 125 

80 When to Spray for Codling Moth 125 

81 Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer 126 

82 Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer 126 

83 Tent Caterpillar and Web 127 

• 84 Fall Web Worm 128 

85 Canker Worm 129 

86 Apple Aphis 129 

87 Wooly Aphis 130 

88 Apple Leaves Injured by Leaf Roller 131 

89 San Jose Scale 132 

90 Bitter Rot 132 

91 Apple Scab 133 

92 The Peach Borer 134 

93 Peach Yellows -. 135 

94 Peach Rosette 135 

95 Black Spot of the Peach 136 

96 The Plum Curculio and Its Work 136 

97 Curculio Catcher 137 

98 Plum Gouger and Infested Fruit 138 

99 Strawberry Plant with Good Roots and Small Crown 143 

100 Matted-Row Cultivation of Strawberries 144 

101 Graded and Ungraded Fruit 145 

102 Destructive Lumbering 150 

103 A Tree with Too Much Side Light 152 

104 A Group of Chestnut Sprouts 154 

105 Young Pine Trees on Cut-Over Lands 155 

106 Dairy Type (Guernsey Cow) 160 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Figure Page 

107 Ayrshire Cow 161 

108 Holstein Cow 162 

109 Beef Type (Hereford) 163 

no A Good Feeder 164 

111 A Bad Feeder 164 

112 Galloway Bull 165 

113 How Milk Looks Under a Miscroscope . . . •. 167 

114 Diagram Showing Average Composition of Milk 168 

115 A Sanitary Cow Stable 169 

116 A Filthy Cow Stable 170 

1 1 7 How Bacteria Grow 1 72 

118 A Cheap Pasteurizing Apparatus 173 

119 An Up-to-Date Creamery 174 

120 Babcock Testing Apparatus 176 

121 Barrel Churn 177 

122 Butter Worker 178 

123 Worthless Camembert Chee^ 180 

124 Penicillium Camemberti 181 

125 Percheron Stallion 195 

126 Belgian Draft Stallion 196 

127 Suffolk Stallion 197 

128 American Trotting Horse (Morgan Type) 198 

129 Champion Hackney Stallion 201 

130 A Shoe in Proper Position 202 

131 Merino Ram 205 

132 Southdown Ewe 206 

133 Hampshire Downs ;...... 207 

134 Cheviot Ewe 208 

135 Lincoln Ewe 208 

136 Cotswold Ram 209 

137 Poland China Hog 212 

138 Berkshire Hog 213 

139 Duroc-Jersey Hog . 214 

140 Tamworth Hog 216 

141 Chester White Hog 216 

142 White Leghorn Hen 218 

143 Black Minorca Cockerel 219 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 



Figure Page 

144 Silver Spangled Hamburg Cockerel 219 

145 Light Brahmas . . .' 220 

146 Buff Cochin Hen 221 

147 Pair of Langshans 221 

148 Barred Plymouth Rock Cock 223 

149 Water Pan with Cover 225 

150 Brown China Geese 226 

151 Pair of Indian Runner Ducks 228 

152 A Prize Turkey 228 

153 Langstroth Hive with Supers 230 

154 Small Sections with Comb Foundation 231 

155 The Honey Bee 232 

156 Queen Cells and Worker Cells 233 

157 Different Stages in the Development of the Honey Bee .... 233 

158 Examining a Brood Frame 235 

159 Bee Veil and Smoker 236 

160 Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of a Tent Caterpillar . . . 240 

161 Cooper Hawk (Chicken Hawk) 242 

162 Birds Make War on Insects 244 

163 Everything Is Done at One Operation 246 

164 A Hay Loader 248 

165 A Good Single Track Macadam Road 251 

166 Cross Section of Two Good Forms for Earth Roads 252 

167 Split Log Drag 253 

168 A Road Machine 254 

169 A Steam Road Roller 256 

170 Rock Crusher „ . 257 

171 First Course of Rock in a Macadam Road , . . 258 

172 Prosperous Localities Have Good Roads 259 

173 Farm Home Rich in Flowers and Comfort 262 

174 Grouping Trees for Landscape Effect 264 

175 Shrubs Are Effective When Placed Near the House 267 

176 Vines are Artistic When Arranged in Retreating Corners .... 267 

177 Shrubs and Vines May Be Used to Screen Unsightly Buildings . . 269 

178 A Portion of a Neat and Attractive School Ground 270 

179 In the Country There Is Plenty of Fresh Air and Sunshine ... 273 

180 It Is Agreeable to Listen to the Murmur of the Wind in the Trees 275 



SOIL FORMATION 



CHAPTER I 

SOIL FORMATION 

MAN is the highest form of life upon this earth. 
He obtains his food from plants and animals. 
Animals obtain their food from other animals 
or plants, and plants depend upon the soil for part of 
their food supply. 

We see, then, how important the soil is to all forms of 
life. Naturally, we desire to know what materials compose 
the soil, how it was formed, its relation to plant life, and 
the means by which man can c^id nature in bringing forth 
harvests from the ground. 

How Soil Is Formed — If two pieces of sandstone are 
pounded together, they break up into small grains of 
sand. In other words, the small particles of rock have 
been caused to separate. There are many agents of 
nature that form soil by breaking up and dissolving rock- 
material, and that add organic matter by causing the 
decay of plants and animals. The following assist in 
forming soil: 

1. Moving water. 

2. Moving ice. 

3. Heat and cold. 

4. Winds. 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



5. Earthworms, ants, and living animals. 

6. Living plants. 

7. Gases in the air and water. 

8. The decaying of plants and animals. 

Moving Water — The amount of work done in soil forma- 
tion by moving water is very great. The rain water from 
the eaves wears trenches in the ground, and in the course 
of time may wear depressions in solid rock. The amount 
of work that moving water can do is increased to a great 
extent when it carries some rock particles to help grind the 
rock. It also depends upon the quantity of water in motion, 
the velocity with which the water flows, and the hardness 
of the rock. Moving water transports soil material. As a 




A Portion of a Flood Plain 



SOIL FORMATION 




Fig. 2. Soil Builders at Work 
Leaves, roots, stems, find their way back to the soil, and enrich It 

stream will carry coarser particles where it is swift than 
where it is slow, the material deposited is sorted. Moving 
water, then, wears, carries, sorts, and deposits material. 

The flood plains of rivers serve as examples of the work 
that moving water can do. Soils left by rivers in this 
way are called alluvial soils. 

Moving Ice — Ages ago the northern part of North 
America was covered by a great ice sheet. As this large 
ice sheet moved slowly along, it scraped up sand, gravel 
and rocks, which it ground together until much of it 
was reduced to fine particles. Some of the hard rocks 
which were not completely pulverized had their corners 
worn off and are called glacial bowlders. The rocks over 
which the glacier passed are grooved and scratched because 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



of the rock material frozen In the bottom of the glacier. 
When the ice melted, it left the soil and the bowlders 
all mixed together without any definite arrangement. 

Because the material 







was not left in layers 
it is said to be unstrat- 
ified; but in some cases 
it was sorted and de- 
posited by the water 
which flowed from the 
melting glacier, there- 
fore stratification re- 
sulted. 

Heat and Cold — 

Changes In temperature 
will cause pieces of rock 
to chip off. When the 
change of temperature 
is slow we may not notice this, but when it is rapid 
we sometimes see the effects in a short time. If a rock 
is heated and suddenly cooled by throwing on cold water, 
it is apt to break in pieces. The effect of a change in 
temperature becomes more prominent where the water 
freezes in the cracks of rocks ; the expansion of the freezing 
water causes the rocks to split. The great power exerted 
by freezing water is seen in the bursting of water pipes 
in winter. 




Fig. 3. Section of Hill Left by Ice Sheet 
The materials are mixed together 



SOIL FORMATION 



Winds — When sand is blown violently against rocks, 
it possesses considerable cutting power. Winds also 
transport soil. Sometimes they leave the transported soil 
in large heaps, known 
as sand dunes. 






Q:, ^'-itl£^ 



Earthworms — Earth- 
worms increase the po- 
rosity of the soil by 
digging tunnels in the 
ground where they live. 
They bring the soil 
from these tunnels to 
the surface, where it is 
left in worm - shaped 
piles, called worm casts. 
Darwin has stated that 
worms often bring as 
much as one inch of soil 
to the surface in five years. In this way the renewing of 
the top soil is continually going on. Worms also assist in 
adding organic matter by dragging partly decayed leaves 
and vegetable matter into the ground. 

Ants — The work of ants in improving the soil lies chiefly 
in the tunnels which they dig. The earth does not pass 
through their bodies, as is the case with worms; conse- 
quently they do not materially aid in pulverizing the soil. 



Fig. 4. Disintegrating Rock 
The foices of nature are gradually breaking up this rock 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Other Animals — Other animals which burrow in the 
ground are gophers, field mice, moles, prairie dogs, and 
woodchucks. Their aid in soil formation is much less 
than that of earthworms or ants. 





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Fig. 5. Roots of Trees Breaking Up a 
Rocky Subsoil 

Living Plants — The higher forms of plant life aid in 
breaking up rocks and in making the particles of soil 
finer. Not only do plant roots grow into the cracks of 
rocks and break off pieces, but they produce acids which 
dissolve some materials in the rocks. 



SOIL FORMATION 



Besides the higher plant forms, we find in the soil 
very small one-celled plants called bacteria. They are 
so small that hundreds of them could be placed on the 
point of a pin. There are various varieties of bacteria, 
as there are various varieties of corn or other plants. 
At present we do not fully understand all varieties of 
bacteria found in the soil, but we know that some of 
them cause the decomposition of organic matter, and 
that some fix nitrogen in the soil in a form that can be 
made use of by plants. 

Gases in Air and Water — When water takes up carbon 
dioxide, its dissolving action on some rocks is greatly 
increased. Oxygen combines with the minerals of rocks 
and forms oxides. A familiar example is that of iron 
rusting. The crumbly iron rust, or iron oxide, is formed 
by the oxygen uniting with the iron. 

The Decaying of Plants and Animals — Plants and 
animals decay and form the organic part of the soil. 
When partially decayed, they form humus. As has been 
said before, humus increases the moisture-holding capacity 
of the soil, regulates its temperature, and finally serves 
as plant food. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1. If you can observe the ice in a lake or a river 
when it breaks up in the spring, notice its grinding 
effect. How does it act on the banks? 



8 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

2. Notice how water affects the roadside after heavy 
rains. Observe the action of small streams swollen after 
heavy rains. Is the water muddy? Where did the 
stream get the material which It carries? Where will 
this material settle? 

3. Experiment to show the power of water and frost: 
Fill a glass bottle with water and cork It. Leave this out 
of doors overnight when the temperature Is below the 
freezing point. What happens to the bottle? What 
would you expect to see happen when water freezes In 
the cracks of rocks? 

4. Observation of the work of earthworms: Earth- 
worms do most of their work at night. Notice that they 
come out of the ground after heavy rains. Look for 
worm casts on the ground In the morning. Is the soil 
In these casts finer or coarser than the soil In the ground? 

5. If you live In a territory over which the Ice sheet 
passed, examine the glacial bowlders. Observe the grooves 
and scratches In the rocks. How were they made? 

6. Experiment to show how water causes stratifica- 
tion by sorting and depositing the material: Put some 
soil Into a jar of water and shake vigorously. After It 
has stood awhile, observe that the coarser particles are 
at the bottom of the jar and the finer material on top. 

Place the following outline In your notebook for use 
In reviewing: 



SOIL FORMATION 



1 r^ 1 . . £ .1 -1 i (0 Mineral matter from rocks. 

1 . Lieneral origm or the soil \ /y^ r\ ■ ^^ c i ,. 

° ( (z; Urganic matter rrom plants. 

2. Soil-forming agents. 

fa. Wears the material. 
(1) Moving water ^ b. Carries the material. 

[c. Sorts and deposits the material. 

{a. Grinds the material, 
b. Carries the material, 
c. Deposits the material. 

(3) Heat and cold, especially in the presence of water. 

(4) Winds. 

(5) Earthworms, ants, and living animals. 

(6) Living plants. 

(7) Gases in the air and water. 

(8) Plants and animals decaying. 

REFERENCES 

Soils, Burkett. 

Physics of Agriculture, King. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, 

The Earthworm, Darwin. 

The Soil of the Farm, Scott and Morton. 



10 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER II 

CLASSES OF SOILS 

Classes of Soils — Generally speaking, the different 
components of soils are sand, clay, and humus. Soils 
are known as sandy, clayey, humous, or loamy, according 
to the amount of each material they contain. 

Sandy Soils — When a large part of the soil consists 
of sand, it is said to be sandy. Sandy soils weigh more 
than other kinds.* They become warm rapidly; there" 
fore they can be worked early in the season. They can 
be cultivated easily, and they admit air and moisture 
readily. When very sandy, they are poor soils for 
growing most crops, because: 

L They do not contain enough plant food to supply 
the growing crops. 

2. They absorb water rapidly, but they do not retain 
it; therefore the crops are apt to become dry and parched 
in times of drouth. 

3. Because of their porous character they do not hold 
fertilizers well. The amount of fertilizer that passes 
through the soil and is lost depends upon whether the 
sand is fine or coarse, and whether the sandy top soil 



* The terms Light and Heavy, as applied to soils, have nothing whatever to do 
with their weight. Soils like sand that are easy to work are said to be light. Clay 
soils are hard to work, and are said to be heavy. 



CLASSES OF SOILS 11 

has a subsoil of clay or of sand. If the subsoil is clay, 
the fertilizing materials do not pass through the top 
soil so readily. 

How to Improve Sandy Soils — Humus increases the 
ability of sandy soils to hold moisture, prevents the leach- 
ing of fertilizers, and is beneficial because of the plant 
food it contains. It can be supplied indirectly by green 
manuring; that is, by growing such crops as clover or 
peas and plowing them under; or it may be supplied by 
applying barnyard manure. Lime increases the moisture- 
holding capacity of sandy soils by causing the grains 
of sand to adhere to each other. Clay could be added 
to help retain the moisture, but its application is usually 
expensive. 

Clay Soils — Pure clay is composed of very fine soil 
particles packed closely together. Although it holds 
moisture for a long time, its compact nature prevents 
moisture and air from moving freely through it. Crops 
suffer on a soil containing too much clay, both in wet 
seasons and in dry seasons. In wet weather too much 
moisture is retained. In dry seasons baking causes the 
soil to become so hard that the roots of plants cannot 
penetrate it. Clay soils are difficult to work, because 
they are sticky when wet and hard when dry. 

How to Improve Clay Soils — We have seen that clay 
soils differ in character from sandy soils. Anything done 



12 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

to make the soil warmer, to cause air and moisture to 
move freely through it, and to prevent its baking, will 
result in an improved condition. 

The addition of barnyard manure makes clay soils 
more porous, allowing air and moisture to move freely 
through them. Green manuring acts in the same way. 
The addition of lime causes clays to become more friable. 
All of these methods tend to keep the soil from baking. 
It should be remembered that the addition of humus 
will not improve wet clays unless they are properly 
drained. 

Humous Soils — Humus consists of partially decayed 
plants and animals. It is easily recognized by its dark 
color. Humous soils hold rather too much moisture, 
but they are fertile when properly drained. The addi- 
tion of coarse barnyard manure benefits this class of soils. 

Loamy Soils — A loam consists of a mixture of sand, 
clay, and humus. As these may be mixed in any pro- 
portion, there are several kinds of loams. It is con- 
venient to consider three classes of this type of soils; 
viz., loam, sandy loam, and clay loam. A loam contains 
about 50 per cent, of sand. A sandy loam consists of 
more than 60 per cent, of sand. A clay loam contains 
30 per cent, of clay, or over. It should be remembered, 
however, that when a soil contains more than 60 per cent, 
of sand it is called sandy, and not loamy. In like manner. 



CLASSES OF SOILS 



a soil which is more than half clay is called a clay soil. 
Loams are good soils for the following reasons: 

1 . They contain sand, which renders them warm and 
causes them to absorb moisture and air freely. 

2. They contain clay, which renders them cool and 
prevents the moisture evaporating too rapidly. 

3. They contain humus, which aids in retaining 
moisture, and, in the process of decomposition, furnishes 
food for plants. 

Limestone or Calcareous Soils contain about 20 per 
cent, of lime or over. Unless they contain too much 
lime, they are good soils, especially for raising grains 
and fruits. Limestone soils are easily worked. 

Alkali Soils are found chiefly in the arid regions in 
the western United States. They are so called because 
they contain a large amount of salts of various kinds. 
Such soils are unproductive for most crops until the salts 
are washed out by irrigation and drainage. 

Sugar-producing plants require large quantities of 
alkali. The growing of such plants on alkali soils is 
recommended. Sugar beets, sorghum, onions, asparagus, 
sweet clover, pears, and figs grow well on alkali soils. 

The Best Soil for general purposes contains sand, clay, 
humus, and lime in proper proportions. As few farms 
contain each of these materials in the right proportion, 
the farmer has to consider what crops his land is best 



14 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

fitted for, as well as how to improve the condition of 
the land. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1 . Examine some dry sand, dry clay, and dry humus. 
Notice the size, shape, and color of the grains in each. 
Moisten each of these soils and see which can be molded 
into a definite shape the best. Which soil remains 
crumbly? 

2. Put a couple of handfuls of soil into a glass jar, 
pour on some water, and shake vigorously. Let the jar 
stand awhile. The sand settles at the bottom of the 
jar; some of the clay settles on top of the sand, while 
some of the finest clay is held in the water, making it 
look roily; some humus may be seen floating on top of 
the water. Try this with various soils and estimate the 
parts that are sand, clay, and humus. 

3. Experiment to show how alkali salts gather on the 
surface of a soil in the form of a crust: Place a handful 
of salt in the bottom of a glass tumbler, fill the tumbler 
with sand, pour water on the sand, and set the tumbler 
aside in the sunshine. What happens when the water 
evaporates? 

4. Experiment to show what portion of the soil is 
humus and what portion is mineral matter: Dry the 
soil thoroughly. After it is dry, heat it red-hot over the 
flames of a fire. The humus will burn. The portion 



CLASSES OF SOILS 15 

of the soil that does not burn is mineral matter. Test 

equal amounts of various soils to see which contains the 

most humus in relation to the mineral matter.* 

Make an outline of each kind of soil to show the 

composition, characteristics, defects, and the ways of 

improving each. 

REFERENCES 
Soils, Buikett. 

The Soil of the Farm, Scott and Morton. 
First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 
Chemistry of the Farm, Warrington. 

Manures: How to Make and How to Use Them, Sempers. 
The Physical Properties of Soils, McCall. 



*The amount of film water is so small that it may be disregarded in this 
experiment. 



16 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER III 

WATER IN THE SOIL 

Water Necessary for Plant Growth — Plants cannot live 
without food and water. The water containing soluble 
plant food is taken from the soil by the plant roots and 
passes through the plant to the leaves, where a great 
deal of it evaporates. For every pound of vegetation 
produced, from 100 to 600 pounds of water are required. 
The evaporation of the water from the surface of the 
land is also considerable. The question of water supply 
m the soil, then, becomes one of great importance. 

Kinds of Moisture in the Soil — There are three classes 
of water in the soil; viz., free water, capillary water, 
and film or hygroscopic water. 

Free Water — The water contained between the soil 
particles, which would drain away if it had a chance to 
do so, is called free water, or ground water. A hole dug 
in soil containing free water will be partly filled up by the 
free water, and the height to which the water rises in the 
hole will indicate the height of the free water in the soil. 
The upper surface of the free water is called the water table. 
It is the free water which supplies springs and wells. 

Capillary Water — If you place one end of a glass tube 
of small bore and open at both ends in a dish of water, 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



17 



act in the 
therefore 
in the soi 




the water inside the tube will rise above the water level 
in the dish. The small spaces between the soil particles 
same way as the space in the tube; 
the water will pass from space to space 
Welter level ^Iways moving from a 
\r\ tube. moist to a dry portion. 
Water level t .i • l -ii 

in dish. In the same way mk will 

rise in a strip of blotting 
paper, and oil through a lamp-wick. 
The force which causes liquids to 
pass through porous substances in 
this manner is called capillarity, or 
capillary attraction. Plants depend 
Fig. 6. Water Rising in Tube ^p^j^ ^\^q capillary Water of the soil 

y api ary ttraction ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^.^ Water SUpply. YoU 

can see the water rise in the soil by capillary attraction if 
you will perform the following experiment: 

Place a lamp chimney on a blotter in a saucer. Fill 
the chimney with dry soil, and pour some water in the 
saucer. Observe the water rise through the soil. 

Film or Hygroscopic Water is a very thin layer of 
water around each soil particle. It will pass off as steam 
if the soil is heated to a high temperature. 

Various Uses of Soil Moisture— 1. Some of the food 
materials cannot be used by growing plants until they 
are changed by chemical processes. The presence of 
moisture aids greatly in these chemical processes. 



18 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

2. Plants cannot take up solid foods, but can take 
up foods in solution. Water dissolves plant foods. 

3. The water carries the dissolved plant foods to the 
various parts of the plant. 

4. Some of the water is used by plants to build up 
the plant tissues. 

5. The water regulates the temperature of the soil. 

Capacity of Soils for Moisture — When the spaces 
between the soil particles are completely filled with 
water, the air is kept out of the soil; therefore the plants 
will die — as is commonly said, they drown. When there 
is a lack of water in the soil, the plants are not only 
unable to obtain moisture, but their roots cannot obtain 
the necessary plant food, because the food materials must 
be taken up in solution. 

It is supposed that crops suffer whenever the soil 
contains more moisture than one-half or less than one- 
fifth of the capacity of the spaces between the soil 
particles. 

What Can Be Done in Case of Too Little Moisture 
in the Soil — The lack of moisture in the soil is due to 
one or more of the following conditions: 

1. Insufficient rainfall. 

2. Too great percolation. 

3. Evaporation. 

4. Transpiration. 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



19 



Insufficient Rainfall — By irrigation, crops can be grown 
where there is little or no rainfall. The various systems 
of irrigation will be discussed later. 

Percolation is the term given to the passing of the 
free water downward through the soil. It is greatest 
in coarse-grained soils. There is an immense amount 




Fig. 7. Water in the Soil 

a, rain water percolating through the soil ; b. water rising by capillarity ; c, evaporation taking 
place at the surface ; d. evaporation prevented by a mulch 

of difference in the percolation of water in coarse-grained 
soils having coarse-grained subsoils, and in those having 
fine-grained subsoils. If a sandy soil has a subsoil of 
clay, the water does not pass downward as rapidly as 



20 . SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

it would if the subsoil were of sand or gravel. Per- 
colation can be prevented to a certain extent by adding 
clay, humus, barnyard manure, or by green manuring. 

Evaporation not only causes the ground to become dry, 
but it causes the soil to become cold. For this and other 
reasons the farmer desires to prevent it as much as 
possible. Evaporation is greatest when there is a high 
temperature, when the air is dry, when there are dry 
winds, and in coarse soils. It can be lessened by adding 
humus, clay, or manure. Shallow tillage with a fine- 
toothed cultivator greatly hinders evaporation. In this 
case the water rises by capillarity until it reaches the 
loose cultivated soil on top, through which it does not 
readily pass. 

Transpiration — Much of the water taken up by the 
plant is given off by the leaves. This transpiration of 
water, as it is called, is large, but varies in various plants. 
Sunlight and dry weather are conditions which make 
transpiration rapid. 

In some sections of the country there is not enough 
rainfall to supply a succession of crops with water; hence 
a system of farming known as dry-farming is followed. 
This is merely a way of saving moisture that plants 
would otherwise transpire for the use of future vegeta- 
tion. In dry farming, plants are grown one year, and 
the second year the land is allowed to lie idle. Although 



WATER IN THE SOIL 21 

no crops are raised during the second year, surface tillage 
is followed in order to save the moisture already in the 
soil and that which is added by rains during the year. 
Crops are grown the third year. It will be seen that 
where this system is followed the rainfall of two or more 
years can be used for producing one crop. 

Too Much Moisture in the Soil — Lands that are low 
frequently have too much moisture on account of water 
running on them from higher lands, or the presence of 
springs, or floods which do not drain off on account of 
the compact nature of the soil. The only satisfactory 
way of treating such soils is to drain them. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1 . (a) Place the same amount of dry sand, dry clay, 
and dry loam in separate tin cans. Slowly pour water 
on each until the spaces between the soil particles are 
completely filled. Which soil has the most space between 
its particles? 

(b) Punch holes in the bottom of each tin can and 
let the water drain off. Which soil retains the most 
water? Which retains the least? 

2. Mold some sand, some clay that is slightly moist, 
and some clay that is very moist, into any shape and dry 
in the sun. Describe the condition of each in regard to 
baking. Would you plow a clay field when it is wet? 
Why, or why not? 



22 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

3. Perform Experiment 1 with sand mixed with clay. 
How does the addition of clay affect the capacity of 
the soil for moisture? Does the soil retain more or 
does it retain less moisture after the clay is added? 
Mix humus with sand and note results in the same 
manner. 

4. Mix some cut grass or leaves with sand and with 
clay. Pour on water and observe how the addition of 
the cut grass affects each in regard to absorption and 
retention of the water. Dry the mixture of cut grass 
and clay in the sun and notice how it bakes in comparison 
with clay without the grass. Then, what are some of 
the effects of green manuring on clay soils? On sandy 
soils? Have you seen green manuring used? What 
results did you observe? 

5. Experiment to show the three kinds of soil water: 
Fill with sand a tin can having several holes in the 
bottom. 

(a) Saturate the sand with water. The water that 
runs off through the holes in the can is free water, 

(b) After the water ceases to drip from the can, 
remove the soil and weigh it. Spread it out to dry in 
a large dish. After it is thoroughly dried in the air, 
weigh it again. The loss of water due to evaporation 
is indicated by the loss of weight. The water that 
evaporated was the capillary water. 



WATER IN THE SOIL 23 

(c) The film water is now around each soil par- 
ticle and can be removed by heating the soil at a 
temperature high enough to cause the water to pass 
off as steam. 

6. Experiment to show how shallow cultivation 
affects the evaporation of water in the soil: Place two 
lamp chimneys in saucers and fill each with the same 
amount of moist soil. Be careful that the soil in each 
lamp chimney is of the same kind. Pack the surface 
of the soil in one lamp chimney at the beginning of the 
experiment, and stir the surface of the other frequently. 
At the end of several days weigh each soil and notice 
which has lost the most moisture. 

Fill the blanks in the following outline. Place your 
completed outline in a notebook for use in reviewing. 

WATER IN THE SOIL 

. CO) 

1. Kinds of water in the soIl-< (2) 

1(3) 

(1) To aid in chemical processes. 



2. Uses of water in the soil< 



(2) 
(3) 
(4) 

X5) 

3. Why do plants die when too much moisture is present in 
the soil? 

4. Why do plants die when too little moisture is present in 
the soil? 



24 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

5. What can the farmer do to improve his crops under the 
following conditions: 

(1) When the rainfall is insufficient 

(2) When percolation is great 

(3) When evaporation is great 

(4) When too much moisture is present in the soil 

REFERENCES 

Physics of Agriculture, King. 

How Crops Feed, Johnson. 

The Physical Properties of Soils, McCall. 

Soils, Burkett. 



DRAINAGE 25 



CHAPTER IV 

DRAINAGE 

Why Important — In order to produce cultivated crops, 
land must be drained, either naturally or artificially. 
Although a large amount of land has been converted 
into farms by proper systems of drainage, thousands 
of acres, now useless, will make productive farms when 
drained. 

Various Benefits of Drainage — 1. Drainage deepens 
the top soil and the subsoil by removing the surplus 
water. 

2. It improves the texture by causing sticky soils 
to crumble and become porous. On this account air 
is freely admitted. 

3. Plants stand drouth better in a drained soil because 
their roots can go deeper than in an undrained soil where 
the water table is near the surface. 

4. Drainage helps to warm the soil. In an undrained 
soil, a large portion of the sun's heat is used to warm 
the unnecessary water contained between the particles 
of soil. When a soil is drained, the soil particles get 
the benefit of this heat; consequently the frost goes 
out of the ground earlier in the spring than from 
undrained soils. 



26 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 8. Land Needing Drainage 



5. A well-drained soil favors the growth of certain 
bacteria which change the nitrogen of the soil into 
nitrate salts. In this form the nitrogen is available for 
plant use. 

6. Seeds will germinate better in a drained than in 
an undrained soil, because they will not rot. 

What Soils Need Draining — Compact soils like clay, 
and some of those having compact subsoils, need artificial 
draining, especially if they are low. All soils where the 
water table comes too near the surface should be drained. 
Water standing upon the surface of the land for long 
periods indicates the necessity of drainage. Soils pro- 
ducing water plants have too much moisture and should 



DRAINAGE 



27 



be drained. Water running in the furrow when the 
land is being plowed is an indication that drainage is 
necessary. 

What Soils Can Be Drained — All soils can be drained 
except those whose surface level is too near the level 
of the water in the outlet streams. For instance, a piece 
of land lying only a foot above the water level of a lake 
or a river draining it, is too low for artificial drainage. 
Land lying several feet above such a river or a lake can 
be drained. 

Kinds of Drains — All drains can be included under 
two classes; open drains, and underground drains. 

Open Drains are nothing more than ditches. The 
expense of digging such drains is considerable, because 
they must be made wide at the top. They take up too 




Fig. 9. A Large Open Drain 



28 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



much valuable space, are in the way of cultivating 
implements, and are likely to become clogged. 

On account of these defects, open drains are not well 
suited to cultivated lands, but they are valuable for 
draining the surface water from marshes. To avoid 
caving in, they may be dug with sloping sides. 

Underground Drains, 

as the name indicates, 
are laid so the water 
channel is beneath the 
ground. Tile drainage 
is the best system of 
underground draining. 
Although the first cost is 
considerable, tile drains 
are cheap in the long 
run because of their 
lasting qualities. They 
are out of the way, the 
water flows through 
them freely, and they are not likely to become clogged. 
They present difficulties, however, when laid in muck 
soils, because the shrinkage of the soil moves the tile 
out of place. Open drains are best for such soils. 

Laying Underground Drains — Underground drains 
must be placed deep enough to be out of the way of 




Fig. 10. Drain Tile in Trench Ready 
for Covering 



DRAINAGE 29 



plant roots and below the frost line. They must have 
a gentle slope. The distance apart the drains should be 
laid depends upon the character of the soil and the 
depth at which they can be placed. The tile used should 
be in good condition, and the ends should be placed 
close together. After the tiles are laid, there is always 
danger of the fine soil working through the joints and 
obstructing the drain before the ground settles. To 
guard against this, the joints are usually covered with 
cloth, or tarred building-paper. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on the 
germination of seeds: Fill two cans with the same kind 
of soil. Punch small holes in the bottom of one to let 
off the surplus water; the other can should have a water- 
tight bottom. Plant seeds in both, and at frequent 
intervals pour the same amount of water on each. 
Enough water should be added to keep the soil in the 
tight can very wet. Which seeds sprout first? Do the 
others sprout later, or do they decay? 

2. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on the 
growth of plants: Set out some small plants in two 
cans of soil prepared as in Experiment I. After a time 
notice their condition. 

3. Put some clay soil into two cans and keep it quite 
moist. In one set out a few corn plants about 2 inches 



30 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

high; in the other set out some grass plants about the 
same height. After several days, notice which grows the 
better. If you had some wet clay land, would you grow 
corn or grass? 

4. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on 
alkali soils: In Experiment 3, Chapter II, after the 
salt gathers on the surface, pour a continual stream 
of water on the soil for a while. What becomes of 
the salt? 

5. Do you know of any land in your locality that 
needs draining? Could this land be drained? What 
effects would you expect to see from draining it? 

Fill in the following outline, and place it in your 
notebook for use in reviewing. 

DRAINAGE 



1. Benefits of drainage < 



r(i) 

(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 
1(6) 



2. Things indicating the need of drainage 

3. Lands that can be drained. 

4. Kinds of drains \ S^C x t^ j"* , 

( {Z) Underground. 



(1) Water standing 
on the surface. 

(2) 

-(3) 



DRAINAGE 



31 



r(a) They take up too much room. 

(1) Defects^ (b) 

1(c) 

(2) Where open drains should be used 



5. Open drains 



6. Tile drains -< 



r(a) 

(1) Advantages of tile drains J ^ ^ 

_ 1(d) .:::i:::;: 

(2) Disadvantage of tile drains in muck soils. 



REFERENCES 

Farm Drainage, French. 

Drainage for Profit, Waring. 

Land Drainage, Miles. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 

Soils, Burkett. 



32 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 







Figure 1 1 
Water Diverted from Stream as Needed 




Figure 12 
Diversion of a Small Stream Into a Reservoir 



IRRIGATION • 33 



CHAPTER V 

IRRIGATION 

Irrigation Necessary — In some of the dry western 
sections of the United States irrigation is absolutely 
necessary. It also pays to irrigate in some places where 
the rainfall is considerable. It is especially advantageous 
to irrigate where fruit is grown. A drouth at the time 
the fruit is nearing maturity always results in a loss. 

Things to Be Considered Before Irrigating — Before 
choosing a system of irrigation, we should consider the 
following: 

1. The lay of the land, the character of the soil, and 
the kind of crops that can be grown the best. 

2. Taking these into consideration, it is essential to 
plan on the amount of water the land will require. 

3. The location of the water supply. 

4. The expense. 

The Water Supply — The water may be obtained from 
streams, springs, lakes, wells, or storms. Water from 
streams is in common use. Sometimes it is simply turned 
aside into the irrigation ditches as needed. This is a poor 
method, because the stream may be low when the water 
is most needed. A much better plan is to store the 



34 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



water in a reservoir, where it can be kept until it is 
wanted. Water from lakes and wells, as a rule, is pumped 
into reservoirs. 

The Reservoir should be above the land to be irrigated 
and as near to it as possible. Sometimes the small 
farmer can make reservoirs large enough to supply his 
farm; but the larger ones take so much capital that the 
co-operation of several individuals is usually necessary 
to build one. Frequently a stream bed can be converted 
into a reservoir by the construction of a dam, but there 
is apt to be a loss from leakage, and damage may result 




Fig. 13. Division Box 



IRRIGATION 



35 




Fig. 14. Check System of Irrigation 

from storms. It Is better to have the reservoir located out 
of the course of the stream, as shown in Figure 1 2. 

Preparation of the Land — In order that the land may 
be watered easily and properly, the surface should be 
prepared so it will have the correct slope. The cost of 
preparing the land for this purpose will be repaid manyf old 
in a few seasons. 

How the Water Is Carried — The water from the 
reservoir, or from the source of supply, is led to the 
various parts of the land through slightly sloping pipes, 
flumes, or ditches. Where there are hills and ravines 
to cross, the ditches may have to be made winding in 
order to avoid too great a slope. The water from the 
main ditch is turned into the side ditches by means of 
a division box, or a similar device. 



36 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Systems of Irrigation — There are several systems of 
irrigation, each of which has its advantages. In choosing 
a system, we should decide in favor of the one that will 
distribute the moisture evenly to a good depth without 
too much expense, or too much waste of water. 

Flooding — The simplest form of irrigation is that in 
which the whole piece of land to be irrigated is flooded 
from the ditches until it is covered with water. This 
method is best suited for grains and grasses. Its prin- 
cipal defects are that it requires considerable work to 
handle the water, and that it is difficult to distribute the 
water evenly over the surface of the field. It Is being 
replaced, to a large extent, by the check method. 

The Check System is popular at present and has 
given satisfaction where other systems have failed. Low 
levees are made so the field is divided into plots, each 
plot being surrounded by a levee less than 1 foot in height. 
First one plot is flooded, then another, and so on. 

The Depressed Bed System is used in growing shallow- 
rooted plants, such as small fruits and vegetables. It can be 
used to the best advantage In light soils. This system is 
much like the check method, but the levees are wider and 
the ditches carrying the water are made in the top of them. 

The Raised Bed System — A system of irrigation 
known as the raised bed system is sometimes used for 



IRRIGATION 



37 



small fruits and vegetables in heavy soils. The ditches for 
carrying the water are lower than the surface of the beds. 
The Furrow System is widely used where the crops 
are grown in rows. The water is led from the main 
ditch through furrows which are made between the rows. 




Fig. 15. Depressed Bed System 

How to Save Soil Moisture — After the soil is irrigated, 
the moisture should be prevented from evaporating by 
shallow cultivation. 

Excessive Irrigation — Over-irrigation should be 
avoided. The application of an excessive amount of 
water to a soil containing alkali salts causes the salts 
to be washed from the higher to the lower soils, where 
they accumulate. On this account irrigated lands must 
be well drained. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1. Observe whether there would be any advantage 
in irrigating your section of the country. Would it be 



38 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



a benefit to your farm or other farms in your locality? 
When have you seen crops suffer for lack of moisture? 
What crops in particular? Do you regard irrigation as 
necessary in your locality or simply an aid in dry seasons? 




Fig. 16. Irrigating a Field 

Is there sufficient rainfall in your locality during the 
fruiting season? 

2. Observe whether it would be possible to irrigate 
your farm. Where would you obtain the water? Is 
the source of supply higher than the land, or would 
the water* have to be pumped? Where would you wish 
to have the reservoir located? Would you prefer a 



IRRIGATION 39 



reservoir for this farm only, or would you prefer one 
large enough to supply several farms? 

3. If there is an irrigation system in your locality, 
visit it. Draw a map showing the source of water supply, 
the location of the reservoir, and the manner in which 
the water is led to the farm. 

4. Draw a map of a farm in your locality, with plans 
for irrigation. Show the source of water supply, where 
you would place the reservoir, and how you would lead 
the water to the farm. After your teacher has examined 
the map, place it in your notebook. 

Make a review outline of this chapter by using the 
following: 

IRRIGATION 



1 . Things to be considered J (2) 

before irrigating | (3) 

1(4) 



r(l) The lay of the land. 
k2^ 



2. Sources of water supply < 



(1) Streams. 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(1) Direct from streams. 
Disadvantages of. 



3. How water may be used^ 



(2) From reservoirs. 
Advantages of... 



40 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



(1) In stream bed. 
Disadvantages. 



4. Location of reservoirs < 



5. Ditches. 
Use 



(2) Out of stream's course. 
Advantages 



(I) 

6. Systems of irrigation^ (3) 

(4) 
L(5) 



7. Where each system may be used 
to the best advantage 



(1) Flooding system, for 

grains and grasses. 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

.(5) 



or- • • • ^- f (0 Danger of 
8. Excessive irrigation | ^2) Remedy 



REFERENCES 

Irrigation Farming, Wilcox. 

Irrigation for the Farmer, Stewart. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 



TILLAGE 41 



CHAPTER VI 

TILLAGE 

What Is Meant by Tillage — Tillage is the stirring and 
breaking up of the soil by the use of plows, harrows, 
cultivators, or other implements. Open or general 
tillage covers the entire ground; intertillage covers only 
the ground between the plants. 

Purposes of Tillage — Some of the purposes of tillage 
are: 

1. To loosen and pulverize the soil. 

2. To bury manure, stubble, and rubbish. 

3. To expose the soil to the action of the air and 
the weather. 

4. To increase the amount of plant food. 

5. To dry the soil. 

6. To save the soil moisture. 

7. To destroy weeds. 

8. To destroy insects. 

9. To cover the seeds. 

Various Ways of Plowing — Sometimes in plowing the 
furrow-slice is turned completely over so that it lies flat 
in the bottom of the furrow. This is apt to be the case 
when a plow having a moldboard with a gradual turn 
is used. Except in cases of light soils, or where heavy 



42 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

sod is to be turned under, this flat-furrow system of 
plowing should not be used, because it does not suffi- 
ciently pulverize the soil. 

In lap-furrow plowing the furrow-slice is not turned 
completely over, but slightly laps over the one preceding 
it. This leaves large air spaces beneath the furrows, but 
it does not pulverize the soil as should be done. 



Fig. 17. Furrow Slices That Are Too Flat 
While the herbage is covered, the soil is pulverized poorly. It is not so good as it looks. 

The use of a plow having a bold moldboard; that is, 
a moldboard with a slight upward curve, results in 
loosening and pulverizing the soil. This kind of plowing 
leaves the soil with large air spaces. It is best for most 
soils. Grass and stubble can be turned under by use 
of the jointer, which is attached in place of the coulter. 

When to Plow — Sandy soils may be plowed when they 
are wet; but clay soils should not be plowed when wet. 



TILLAGE 43 




because they are likely to puddle; that is, the particles 
of soil pack together so air is not readily admitted. 

Spring plowing is commonly done for most crops. It 
is an aid in drying and 
warming the soil. The 
object of spring plowing 
is to bring the soil into 
favorable condition for 

the CrODS. ^^§' '^" ^ ^°*^ Plow 

Fall plowing is sometimes done for the following 
reasons : 

1 . It prepares the soil for the seeding of winter grains. 

2. It destroys insects by bringing them to the surface 
after they become torpid. They are then exposed to 
the winter's cold. 

3. It conserves the soil moisture. 

4. It kills weeds. 

5. It exposes the ground to the action of the air and 

the frost during the 
winter, leaving it in 
good condition for ab- 
sorbing rain and snow. 

6. Some crops, such 
as spring wheat, need 

Fig. 19. A Stirring Plow compact Soils. Fall 

plowing allows the soil to settle before the spring crops 
are planted. 




44 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



7. Fall plowing makes heavy soils mellow. 
Summer plowing is sometimes done to turn under green 
manures. 

Depth to Plow — As a rule, it is best to plow deeply, 
especially for root crops. The depth should be gradually 

increased, however, and 
not increased too much 
at a time, because in 
that case too large an 
amount of subsoil may 
be brought to the sur- 
face at once. The air 
and the water do not get 
time to act on this soil 
before the crops are 
planted. As a result, 
the crops cannot get sufficient plant food. On some 
sandy soils where the plant food is contained in a few 
inches of the top soil, it is not best to plow deeply. 

The Easiest Way to Plow — The nearer the horses are 
hitched to the load the easier they can haul it. In 
plowing, the horses should be hitched as close to the 
plow as possible without striking their heels. Many 
people are in the habit of adjusting the plow to the right 
depth by means of the beam- wheel. This should not 
be done. The plow should be adjusted by use of the 




Fig. 20, Plowing Which Pulverizes the Soil 
The best kind of plowing for most soils 



TILLAGE 45 



clevis until it runs at the right depth. The height of 
the beam-wheel can then be regulated until it runs 
lightly on the ground. If the furrow turns over too 
flat, the plow cuts too wide; if it stands on edge, it is 
too narrow. The width of the furrow can easily be 
regulated by moving the clevis to the left or to the right, 
as the case may be. When the plow is properly adjusted, 
it should run without holding; that is, if the plow is a 
good one, and if there are no obstructions in the soil. 

Harrowing — A large number of styles of harrows and 
drags are in use. The purpose of harrowing may be 
to pulverize the soil, to smooth the surface preparatory 
to planting seeds, to destroy weeds, or to cause a surface 
mulch to save the moisture. 

Rolling and Planking — Rolling makes a smooth surface 
by crushing the lumps 
of earth and by press- 
ing the small stones 
into the soil. This 
is especially desirable 
after seeding land to 
grass. Rolling the soil 
causes the capillary 
water to rise faster; therefore seeds germinate quickly. As 
moisture evaporates rapidly from the compressed surface 
of a rolled field, it is desirable to form a surface mulch 
by going over the ground with a fine-toothed harrow. 




Fig. 21. A Harrow 



46 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Planking acts in the same way as rolling. It is done 
by dragging a number of overlapping planks across the 
ground. Compact soils, like clay, should be planked 
instead of rolled. 



. t 






ji^L^jF 


T\^^ 


^^fmM 


'^^wSI^'^m~ 


^^f'wf 




r'^m^ ^V ijWtlHFjk X^JP'^^S 


"" W-.M~.^ 






*"" -- «'m"* 




r^^^^^^^i 


om^-' 


h m 






':^ 



Fig. 22. A Farm Roller 

Cultivating the Crop — Various kinds of cultivators are 
in use for intertillage, each being suited to a particular 
class of work. Some of the objects of cultivating are 
to kill the weeds, to pulverize the soil, to admit air into 
the soil, and to save the soil moisture. 

EXPERIMENTS 

1. Experiment to prove that deep tillage aids in 
the evaporation of water in the stirred ground : Fill 



TILLAGE 47 



two cans with the same kind of wet soil. Deeply 
stir one of them often. Let the other stand with- 
out stirring. Which of the cans loses the more 
moisture? 

2. To prove that shallow cultivation helps to retain 
the moisture in the soil, perform Experiment 6, Chap- 
ter in. 

3. Experiment to show the effect of deep plowing on 
poor sandy soils: Fill two boxes with poor, washed sand, 
and place about half an inch of humus on each. Stir the 
soil in one to a depth of an inch, and thoroughly stir 
the soil in the other to a depth of several inches. Plant 
some small seeds in each and watch their growth for 
several weeks. What would be the effect of plowing 
poor sandy soils to a depth of 7 or 8 inches when nearly 
all of the plant food is contained in the first 3 inches 
of top soil? 

4. Experiment to show the effect of packing the soil 
on the germination of seeds: Plant some seeds outdoors 
in the garden, or inside in a box. Press the soil with 
a board in some places, and in others leave it loose. 
Where do the seeds come up first? Then, what would 
be the effect of rolling a loose soil ? How would you 
prevent too rapid evaporation from the surface of a 
packed soil? 

Make a review outline of this chapter by using the 
following as a guide: 



48 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TILLAGE 



L What is tillage?. 



2. Purposes of tillage < 



(I) 

(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 
(6) 
(7) 
(8) 
(9) 



(0) 
3. Different ways of plowing <^ (2) 

1(3) 



(1) Spring plowing — objects 



4. Kinds of plowing 



(2) Fall plowing — objects 



(3) Summer plowing — objects \ 

0) 



(2) 

5. Purposes of harrowing < /^\ 

1(4) :::::::::: 
f(i) 

(2) 

6. Objects of cultivating the crop < q\ 

1(4) Z 

REFERENCES 

Soil and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt. 

Soils, Burkett. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 



PLANT FOODS 49 



CHAPTER VII 

PLANT FOODS 

Food Materials Found in Plants — There are 13 plant- 
food materials* found in plants. Of these, phosphoric 
acid, potash, nitrogen, and lime are the only ones that 
become exhausted in the soil and have to be supplied. 

When Plant-food Materials Are Lacking — We can tell 
when there is a deficiency of plant foods by applying 
various materials to the soil in plots. Then we can see 
in which plot the plants grow the best, and judge where 
certain plant-food materials are needed. Fertilizing tests 
can be made in the same way by using boxes, as shown 
in Figure 23. We can tell by its appearance when a crop 
is starving for a certain food material if we know how 
that food material affects the growth of the plant. Of 
course, if other conditions are not favorable to plant 
growth, this might not be a sure test. Let us see how 



* The 13 elements found in plants are phosphorus, potassium, calcium, 
magnesium, sodium, iron, silicon, chlorin, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, 
and carbon. The plant must take the first nine of these from the soil in the form 
of salt compounds; for example, potassium must be taken in the form of a potash 
salt. The other four elements are secured as follows: 

(1) Nitrogen must be secured from the soil by all plants except the legumes. 
By the aid of certain bacteria, the legumes are able to use the free nitrogen of the 
air. 

(2) Hydrogen is taken from the water. 

(3) Oxygen is secured from the air and from the water. 

(4) Carbon is taken from the carbon dioxide of the air. 



50 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



each of the substances mentioned affects the growth of 
plants and how each may be supplied. 

Nitrogen — The plant depends largely upon nitrogen 
for the growth of the stalks and the leaves. When this 
element is lacking, the plant will be a sickly yellow and 
will not grow to its proper size. All plants except those 
belonging to the clover family must get their supply of 
nitrogen from the soil. Nitrogen is also the most expen- 




SOLUBLE 

PHOSPHORIC 

ACID 



INSOLUBLE 
PHOSPHORIC 
ACID-FLORIDA 
PHOSPHATE 




Fig. 23. Testing the Effect of Plant-Food Materials on Potatoes 

sive element to buy in fertilizers; therefore it is important 
for the farmer to consider the best way of restoring it 
to the soil. It may be supplied to the soil in the following 
ways: 

1. By adding barnyard manure. 

2. By means of bacteria, plants belonging to the clover 
family (legumes) can make use of the free nitrogen of 
the air. As the air contains a large amount of nitrogen, 
this class of plants is abundantly supplied without using 



PLANT FOODS 



51 



the fixed nitrogen* of the soil. Owing to the fact that 
nitrogen is stored in the roots and the other parts of the 
legumes, these crops can be plowed under to supply 
nitrogen to the soil. The growing of clover is one of 
the cheapest ways of restoring nitrogen to the soil. 

3. Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen can be 
used. As a rule they are expensive. 




Fig. 24. Effect of Lime on Plants 
Yield of alfalfa from limed and unlimed soils, a, unlimed ; b, limed 

Phosphoric Acid — Plants must have phosphoric acid 
in order to produce perfect seeds. The seeds will be 
small and shrunken if there is a shortage of phosphoric 
acid. Phosphoric acid can be supplied to the soil by 

*By fixed nitrogen is meant nitrogen combined with other materials in the form 
of compounds. 



52 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 25. The Waste of Barnyard Manure 

applying barnyard manure, or phosphoric acid fertilizers. 
Barnyard manure is usually the cheaper 

Potash — Fruits and root crops require a considerable 
amount of potash. Without a good supply of potash, 
roots and fruits will be small and imperfect. Potash 
may be added to the soil by applying barnyard manure, 
unleached wood ashes, or commercial fertilizers. 

Lime — Plants that do not get enough lime grow spin- 
dling and do not produce much seed. The stalks of grain 
plants on soils deficient in lime are slender and weak. 
Lime aids greatly in forming stout stalks and luxuriant 
foliage. 

Lime is usually present in the soil in sufficient amounts, 
but sometimes it has to be added. It is generally applied 
for other reasons than that of serving as plant food. 
Some of these are: 



PLANT FOODS 



53 



1. It aids In decaying humus, thus forming more 
available plant food. 

2. It benefits acid soils by destroying the acids. 

3. It makes the soil more mellow. 

Lime can be added to the soil by applying marl, land 
plaster, or various other fertilizers, which can be pur- 
chased. Some plants, however, are injured by the 
application of lime. Watermelons do not seem to grow 
well when there is much lime in the soil. 

Value of Barnyard Manure — As barnyard manure con- 
tains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, it is an excel- 
lent fertilizer. It also causes the soil to retain the proper 
amount of moisture, and improves the soil- texture. As the 
value of barnyard manure is considerable, the farmer should 
take good care of it, and not allow it to go to waste* 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1 . Spade up a piece of ground and divide it into three 
plots, as shown in the diagram. Apply some manure 
to the surface of the first plot, but do not mix it with 



1 


2 


3 



Fig. 26. Arrangement of Plots for Experiment 1 

the soil. On the second add the same amount of manure 
to the square foot as you did on the first, but mix 
it with the soil. Leave the last plot without manure. 



54 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Plant the same kind of crop in each plot and notice how 
the addition of the manure affects the growth of the crop. 

2. Experiment to show the effect of potash on root 
crops: Prepare the ground in the way suggested in the 
preceding experiment. Supply potash by applying wood 
ashes. Plant some root crops, such as carrots, beets, 
or radishes, and notice where they grow the best. 

3. Observe whether there are any places on your 
farm that would be benefited by the application of 
manure, or other fertilizers. How can you tell? Is any 
manure on your farm wasted? If so, how can this waste 
be prevented? If not, how is the waste prevented? 

Make an outline by using the following suggestions: 
1 State what plant foods are sometimes wanting in the soil. 

2. How does each food material affect the growth of the plant? 

3. Tell how plants, or parts of the plants, appear under the 
following conditions: 

(1) When nitrogen is lacking. 

(2) When lime is lacking. 

(3) When there is a deficiency of potash. 

(4) When there is a shortage of phosphoric acid 

4. State how each of these materials may be added to the soil. 

5. How does lime benefit the soil? 

6. Mention three plant-food materials found in barnyard 
manure. 

REFERENCES 

Soils, Burkett. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

How Crops Grow, Johnson. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 

Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 

Talk on Manures, Harris. 



HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 55 



CHAPTER VIII 

HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 

Legumes Restore Nitrogen to the Soil — Carefully dig 
up a thrifty clover plant and examine its roots. The 
small bunches which you see on the roots are called 
nodules or tubercles. They are the homes of millions 
of bacteria, which take nitrogen from the air. All the 
legumes, which are such 
plants as clovers, beans, 
peas,vetches, lentils, and 
alfalfa, have these tuber- 
cles on their roots. The 
roots, stems, leaves, and 
seeds of the legumes are 
rich in nitrogen. As the 
roots and tubercles de- 
cay, they add nitrogen 
to the soil. Even if the 
farmer uses the tops of 
the plants to feed the 
stock, the soil will be richer in nitrogen than it was 
before the legumes were planted. 

Legumes Take Some Plant Foods from the Soil — 

Although legumes having tubercles on their roots get 




Fig. 27. Roots of Soy Bean, Showing 
Tubercles 



56 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



their supply of nitrogen from the air, and add nitrog- 
enous matter to the soil, they get potash and phosphoric 
acid from the soil. Because of this the soil may become 
poor in potash and phosphoric acid, even while becoming 
rich in nitrogen compounds. This is especially true if 
the legumes are cut for hay year after year; therefore it 
may be necessary to see that potash and phosphoric acid 
plant foods are supplied to the soil. 

Inoculation of Legumes — The value of the legumes in 
restoring nitrogen to the soil is due to the bacteria con- 




Fig. 28, Clover Growing in Uninoculated and Inoculated Soils 
a, uninoculated; b, inoculated 

tained in the tubercles on the roots. Without these 
bacteria the legumes can get their nitrogen from the soil 
only. When the bacteria are absent, the legumes do not 
grow well and they exhaust the soil of its nitrogen. On 
this account it is sometimes necessary to supply bacteria. 



HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 57 

Bacteria for this purpose may be secured from the United 
States Department of Agriculture. When the soil is 
supplied with the bacteria it is said to be inoculated. 

Poor Soils and Clover — Clover will grow on soils which 
are very poor in nitrogen. Clover growing is called the 
"key to success" on sandy jack-pine lands. The growing 
of legumes is absolutely necessary on such lands if the 
farmer would sucteed. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1 . Examine the roots of clover, beans, peas, vetches, 
and alfalfa. What difference in the size of the tubercles 
do you notice? 

2. Inoculate some clover. 

3. Make a list of the legumes grown in your locality. 
Make a brief summary of this chapter by answering 

the following questions: 

1. Of what benefit are legumes to the soil? 

2. What plant-food materials do legumes require from the soil? 
How can these plant foods be supplied to the soil? 

3. Under what conditions are the legumes able to use the 
nitrogen from the air? 

4. Under what conditions will the legumes take the nitrogen 
from the soil? 

5. How can nitrogen-fixing bacteria be supplied when lacking? 

6. Upon what soils is it especially necessary to grow clover, 
and why? 

REFERENCES 
Soils, Burkett. 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw, 
First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 



58 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER IX 

SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 

How the Soil Becomes Exhausted — The table at the 
end of this chapter shows that tobacco takes a large 
amount of nitrogen and potash from the soil. If a 
farmer raises tobacco on the same piece of land for 
several successive years, the soil will become exhausted 
of these plant foods. We also notice that wheat would 
finally exhaust the soil of nitrogen; but wheat requires 
less nitrogen and less phosphoric acid than tobacco; 
therefore it is not so hard on the soil. On the other 
hand, butter removes only a small portion of each plant 
food. A farmer removes more nitrogen from his farm 
by selling one pound of tobacco than he would by selling 
40 pounds of butter. 

What the Successful Farmer Should Do — A farmer to 
be successful must keep his land from being exhausted, 
and at the same time he must raise crops that will bring 
him a good financial return. For these reasons, dairying 
and crop rotation should be considered. 

Dairying — When a farmer goes into the dairy business, 
he grows considerable grass and other kinds of food for 
his live stock. A large portion of the elements that the 
feed contains is returned to the soil in the shape of manure. 



SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 59 

The manure also increases the humus in the soil. On 
account of these facts, dairying is easy on the land. 
Moreover, if clover or other legumes are raised, nitrogen 
will be added to the soil. Many farmers have gone 
into the dairy business because they have found that it 
does not exhaust the soil as it does to raise grain crops 
for sale. 

What Crop Rotation Is — Suppose that we grow corn 
this year. If you will look at the table at the end of 




Fig. 29. A Crop on an Exhausted Soil 

the chapter, you will see that corn removes considerable 
nitrogen, some phosphoric acid, and a little potash. If 
we plant clover next year on the same piece of land, 
nitrogen will be restored to the soil, a small quantity of 
phosphoric acid will be removed, and a rather large 



60 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

amount of potash. Now, at the end of the second year, 
let us see what we have done. We have removed crops 
for two years; we leave the soil with as much nitrogen 
as there was when we started; and if we add a small 
quantity of barnyard manure, there will be left a good 
supply of phosphoric acid and potash. Here, again, we 
see the advantage of the addition of manure, which 
means that if a farmer keeps live stock he will not have 
to pay out money for fertilizers. 

The system of following one crop by another that takes 
up different plant foods is called crop rotation. We have 
learned that a large portion of the plant foods in the 
soil is not available for plant use, but gradually becomes 
so. Crop rotation, with cultivation, aids greatly in 
increasing plant food for the succeeding crops. By using 
crop rotations and supplying manures, land can be 
farmed for years without becoming exhausted; in fact, 
it may be improved. 

The length of the roots of the various crops should 
also be considered in planning a system of rotation. For 
example, in the rotation just given, corn gets its food 
near the surface because it is shallow-rooted, while clover 
with its long roots gets its food farther below the surface. 
When one crop follows another one with roots of different 
length, it is easier on the soil than would be the case 
if both crops had roots of the same length. 



SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 



61 



Kinds of Crop Rotations — A crop rotation lasting three 
years is called a three-year rotation, one lasting four years 
a four-year rotation, and so on. Both systems are illus- 
trated in the following table. The farmer should be able 
to plan a system of rotation for his farm better than 
anyone else, being familiar with the conditions. He 
should usually plan to grow the following: 

(a) Some legumes to restore nitrogen to the soil. 

(b) Some crops for feeding live stock. 

(c) Some money crops for a cash income. 

(d) Cultivated crops for destroying weeds. 

EXAMPLES OF CROP ROTATIONS USED IN THE UNITED STATES 





Isl year 


2nd year 


3rd year 


4th year 


5th year 


1 


Potatoes 


Rye 


Clover 






2 


Corn 


Potatoes 


Rye 


Clover 


Clover 


3 


Corn 


Potatoes 


Wheat 


Clover 




4 


Corn 


Wheat 


Clover 


Clover 




5 


Corn 


Potatoes 


Clover 


Clover 




6 


Potatoes 


Wheat 


Clover 


Clover 




7 


Clover 


Corn 


Potatoes 


Turnips 


Wheat 


8 


Alfalfa 


Alfalfa 


Potatoes 


Wheat 




9 


Corn 


Tomatoes 


Clover 


Clover 




10 


Corn 


Sweet Potatoes 


Melons 


Clover 




11 


Broom corn 


Cowpeas 


Wheat 






12 


Corn 


Oats 


Cowpeas 






13 


Turnips 


Barley 


Clover 


Wheat 




14 


Sugar Beets 


Oats or Barley 


Clover 


Clover 


Wheat 


15 


Cotton 


Cowpeas and Clover 


Clover and Corn 






16 


Cowpeas 


Cotton 


Corn and Cowpeas 






17 


Corn-Clover 


Cotton-Wheat 


Cowpeas-Rye 







62 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

The table on page 61 gives some of the systems of 
rotation in use in the United States. Each rotation is 
suited to certain conditions. For example, the first six 
are suitable for light soils, the seventh and fifteenth are 
good rotations where stock is kept, and the last three 
are suited to southern states, where crops can be grown 
both winter and summer. 

EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 

1. By using the tables at the end of this chapter, 
which show the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash removed from the soil, arrange the crops in 
order according to the amount of nitrogen removed. 
Place the crop that removes the most nitrogen first, the 
one that removes the next largest amount second, and 
so on. Represent each amount by drawing lines, letting 
each 1-16 inch in length represent one pound. For example, 
tobacco removes 43.8 pounds of nitrogen, and the line 
representing this amount would be about 2^^ inches long. 
Wheat removes 23.6 pounds of nitrogen, and the line 
representing this would be nearly 1 Vi inches long. Thus : 

Tobacco — 43.8 pounds nitrogen. 
Wheat — 23.6 pounds nitrogen. 



Make lines for the other crops. Show the amount of 
phosphoric acid and potash removed by the crops in the 
same way. Place these diagrams in your notebook. 



SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 63 

2. Select from the table three rotations suitable for 
your section of the country. 

3. Find out what crop rotations are used by some of 
your neighbors. Bring a list of these rotations to class 
for discussion. By using the diagrams you made, deter- 
mine whether the rotations are easy on the land or 
otherwise. Consider what fertilizing materials the farm- 
ers apply in each case. Can you improve any of the 
rotations. If so, how? 

4. Dig up various plants and bring them to class. 
Classify them as deep feeders, medium feeders, and 
shallow feeders. 

SUMMARY 

1. The soil becomes exhausted by planting the same 
crop year after year, and by not adding the necessary 
amount of fertilizers. 

2. How to prevent soil exhaustion: 

(1) Do not grow the same crops, or crops using 
large quantities of the same plant foods, on the 
same piece of land for several successive years. 

(2) Restore nitrogen to the soil by growing legumes. 

(3) Restore potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen 
by applying barnyard manure. 

(4) If necessary, add commercial fertilizers. 

3. In planning a system of rotation, we must consider 
the following: 



64 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



(1) The kind of soil. 

(2) The crops that must be raised to feed the stock. 

(3) The crops that must be sold as money crops. 

(4) The crops that should be raised for restoring 
nitrogen to the soil. 

(5) The amount of manure or fertilizers that can 
be added. 

ELEMENTS REMOVED FROM THE SOIL BY 1000 POUNDS OF VARIOUS 

CROPS 





Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid 


Potash 


~ 


Crops 


(pounds) 


(pounds) 


(pounds) 




Corn 


18.2 


7.0 


4.0 




Tobacco 


43.8 


5.0 


7.3 




Red Clover 





4.0 


22.0 




Wheat 


23.6 


7.9 


5.0 




Beet (common) 


2.4 


0.9 


4.4 




Sugar Beet 


2.2 


1.0 


4.8 




Oats 


20.6 


8.2 


6.2 




Barley 


15.1 


7.9 


4.8 




Peas 




8.2 


9.9 




Potatoes 


3.2 


1.2 


4.6 




Beef 


22.0 


15.5 


1.8 




Milk 


5.3 


1.9 


1.8 




Butter 


1.0 


0.6 


0.3 





REFERENCES 

Soils, Burkett. 

Fertilizers, Van Slyke. 

Talks on Manure, Harris. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 



65 



CHAPTER X 

THE SEED AND GERMINATION 

Structure of the Seed — Soak some beans in water over- 
night. Remove the thin coat which covers the seed and 
observe the two halves, each of which is called a coty- 
ledon. If you will carefully separate the cotyledons and 

examine the inner sur- 
PLUMULE 
CAULICLE 




COTYLEDON 



Fig. 30. Cotyledons of Bean 



face of each, you will 
find a small stem and 
a pair of little leaves 
clinging to one of them. 
The bud, composed of 
the little leaves, will de- 
velop into the top of the 
bean plant. This bud is 
called the plumule. The little stem is called the caulicle. 
Plumule, caulicle, and cotyledons, in the case of the bean, 
make up the embryo or young plant. In some kinds of 
seeds the cotyledons are not part of the embryo. 

The Pea — Examine some soaked peas. Compare the 
cotyledons of the pea with those of the bean in regard 
to shape. Examine the plumule with a magnifying glass. 
You will not be able to see the leaves distinctly until 
the plant grows some. 



66 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The Pumpkin Seed — Examine some pumpkin seeds. 
Compare the outer coat with that of the bean in regard 
to color, hardness, and thickness. Compare the coty- 
ledons with those of bean and pea. 

The Corn — Observe both sides of the kernel. What 
difference do you notice? Compare the coat with the 

coats of the seeds you have 
studied in regard to color, thick- 
ness, and hardness. Cut through 
a soaked kernel of corn so you 
will have a section the narrow 
way of the kernel as shown in 
Figure 31. 

The part of the kernel to the 
right of the diagonal line in 
the illustration is the cotyledon. 
When you examine the section 
which you made of the kernel, lift up the plumule and 
the caulicle with the point of a knife. The leaves of the 
plumule are rolled up. They can be seen better in a 
seed that has sprouted. The part to the left of the 
diagonal line in the illustration is not part of the 
cotyledon. It is food stored up for the use of the young 
growing plant. 

Germination is the early growth of the young plant. 
It is sometimes spoken of as the sprouting of the seed. 




PLUMULE 



CAULICLE 



Fie. 31. Section of a Kernel 



of C( 



The subject of germination is of especial importance to 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 67 

the farmer. Frequently seeds do not germinate because 
they are too old, or because of unfavorable conditions 
of temperature, moisture, or soil. It is easy to test seeds 
to make sure that they are suitable for planting. For 
convenience in testing seeds a germinator is used. 

How to Make a Germinator — When seeds are planted 
in the fields, they germinate in the soil. Sometimes 
seeds are germinated in hotbeds. Convenient germina- 
tors can be made by filling boxes with sawdust or with 
moss. A good germinator can be made from two dinner 
plates and a few sheets of blotting paper. Several sheets 
of blotting paper are placed on the lower plate, and the 
seeds are laid between them. Small seeds may be 




Fig. 32. A Plate Germinator 

germinated on top of the blotters. The blotters are 
moistened and covered with a plate turned bottom side 
up to keep them from drying. 

Conditions Necessary for Germination — The three 
conditions necessary for germination are: 

1. A moderate supply of moisture. 

2. A proper amount of warmth. 



68 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



that these 



3. A certain amount of air. 

You can perform experiments to prove 
conditions are necessary for germination. 

To prove that moisture is necessary: Put seeds in 
two germinators of the same kind, say radish or cabbage 
seed, wheat, oats, or corn. Keep the material surround- 
ing the seeds moist in one and dry in the other. What 
results do you observe at the end of a few days? 

To prove that warmth is necessary: Put seeds in two 
germinators of the same kind. Place one in a room 
where the temperature is kept at 70 degrees; place the 
other where it is as low as 40, if possible. At the end 

3y 



of the sixth day, notice 
how many seeds have 
germinated in each case. 
Some seeds require 
higher temperature for 
germination than oth- 
ers. For instance, corn 
germinates best when 
the temperature is about 
80 degrees, and maple 
seeds will germinate 
when the temperature is 
near the freezing point. 
To prove that air is necessary: Plant seeds in two 
glass fruit-jars filled with moist sand. Fasten the cover 




Fig. 33. 



Red Clover Seeds Mixed with 
Yellow Trefoil 
ed clover seeds; b, seeds of yellow trefoil 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 



69 



on one so it will be air tight. Don't 
put the cover on the other. After 
several days, compare the results. 

Vitality of Various Seeds — The 

farmer should test the vitality of 

seeds in order to make sure they 

will grow after they are planted. 

You can test the vitality of various 

seeds by placing a certain number 

of them in plate germinators and 

observing how many will sprout. 

Each day determine the percentage of the seeds that 

have germinated. Keep the results in your notebook, 

according to the following table: 

TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF VITALITY OF VARIOUS SEEDS 




Fig. 34 

This experiment shows that the 

seed furnishes food for the 

young growing plant 





Seed Tested 


Total per cent germinated up to and including the 




1st day 


2nd day 


3rd day 


4th day 


5th day 


1 


Corn 












2 


Oats 












3 


Wheat 












4 


Peas 












5 


Beans 













Impurities in Seeds — Small seeds, such as clover seed, 
frequently have other seeds and materials mixed with 
them. Examine samples of grass seeds with a magnifying 
glass. Pick out the impurities and determine the per- 
centage of good seed in each sample. 



70 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Growth of the Plumule and the Caulicle — Plant bean, 
pea, corn, and pumpkin seeds in box germinators. 
Observe the growth of the caulicle and the plumule every 
day. Notice that in some seeds the caulicle forms part 
of the stem as well as the root. What part of the plant 




Fig. 35. Tobacco Seedlings from Light, Medium, and Heavy Seeds 
a, from light; b, from medium; c, from heavy seeds 

does the plumule form? How are the leaves folded on 
the various plants just before they break through the 
ground? How far above the surface of the ground do 
the leaves get before they unfold? Observe how the 
leaves unfold on various plants. Which plants have the 
hardest work to come through the ground? 

Depth to Plant Seeds — Plant seeds in glass jars filled 
with earth. Arrange the seeds spirally at various depths 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 



71 



next to the glass, so their growth can be observed. Keep 
the jars wrapped In black cloth or paper when you are 
not examining the plants. You will learn from this experi- 
ment that large seeds should be planted deeper than 
small ones. Keep a record of the results of your experi- 
ment according to the following table: 



Seeds Planted 


Depth Planted 


Date of Planting 


Date when leaves come 
through the ground 


Clover 


No. 1 1 inch 
No. 2 1 inch 
No. 3 1 inch 








No. 4 1 inch 








No. 5 1i inch 






\ 


No. 6 2 inches 
No. 7 3 inches 
No. 8 4 inches 
No. 9 6 inches 






Corn 


No. 1 J inch 







The Seed Supplies the Young Plant with Food — Every- 
thing that grows must 
obtain food. How does 
the young plant get its 
food before its roots are 
developed? It must get 
it from the seed. To 
prove that the seed fur- 
nishes food for the grow- „. ,, c i . r> .. cu 

=* Fig. 36. Select Cotton Fiber 

mg plant, perform the Produced by two generations of seed selection 




72 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



following experiment : Plant some peas in the box 
germinators. Dig up two of the plants when they are 
about 1 inch high. They should be as nearly the same 
size as possible. With a sharp knife 
carefully remove the cotyledons from 
one plant. Leave the cotyledons 
on the other. Fill a tumbler with 
rain water. Punch two holes in a 
piece of cardboard large enough to 
let the roots of the plants through, 
but small enough to hold them 
firmly. Place the cardboard on the 
tumbler and arrange the roots so 
they will hang in the water as shown 
in Figure 34. If the seed contains 
plant food, the plant having the 
cotyledons attached will grow faster 
Fig. 37. A Desirable Stalk ^\^^^ ^\^^ Q^l^^r onc. Plant various 

kinds of seeds and notice how they shrivel up as the food 
which they contain is used by the young, growing plants. 

Use of Cotyledons as Leaves — You will learn later 
that the leaves of plants are factories for manufacturing 
food materials. Observe that the cotyledons of bean, 
pumpkin, and squash come out of the ground on the 
stem of the plant. Why should they do this? If you 
will notice them closely, you will see that they have a 
greenish color. They are acting as leaves to manufacture 




THE SEED AND GERMINATION 73 

food material while the real leaves are forming. The 
cotyledons of the squash form permanent leaves. 
Observe the veins in them. Notice how they differ in 
shape from the other leaves of the squash plant. 

Various Foods Found in Seeds — The principal foods 
found in seeds are: 

(1) Starches and sugars. 
** (2) Fats and oils. 

(3) Proteids. 

We can find out whether these materials are present 
in seeds by applying certain tests. 




Fig. 38. A Perfect Ear of Corn 

Test for Starch — Moisten some starch with dilute 
iodine. The starch turns blue. This is the iodine test 
for starch. If iodine is applied to seeds containing 
starch, the portion of the seed containing the starch will 



74 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

turn blue; if there is much starch present the iodine will 
turn it dark blue, while if a small amount is present 
the color will be light blue. Cut a kernel of corn in 
two and apply dilute iodine to the cut surface. What 
portion of the kernel contains starch? Test other seeds 
for starch. 

Test for Grape Sugar* — A very pretty test for glucose 
or grape sugar is performed as follows: Place a little 
corn syrup in a test tube. Pour on concentrated potas- 
sium hydrate, and a few drops of copper sulphate solution 
(blue stone) f, and boil over a lamp. The mixture will 
turn green, yellow, orange, and finally brick red. Test 
seeds for the presence of glucose. 

Test for Proteids — After reducing some seeds to a 
powder by pounding them, place them in a test tube, 
add a few drops of nitric acid, and boil over a lamp. 
The proteid will turn yellow. Add a few drops of 
ammonia and the proteid will turn orange. Be careful 
that no nitric acid is spilled on your clothes or your 
person. It should be handled with great caution. J 



* Test for cane sugar: (1) Add a solution of cobalt nitrate (5 grains of 
coLalt nitrate to 100 cubic centimeters of water) to the solution to be tested. 
(2) Add to this a strong solution of sodiumhyd rate. A violet color indicates the 
presence of cane sugar. This test applied to grape sugar results in a blue color, 
which finally changes to green. 

fAll the materials mentioned can be purchased at a drug store. Suitable 
test tubes can be had for 5 cents each. An alcohol lamp is a convenience, but 
any lamp may be used. 

tif nitric acid is spilled on the person, It should be washed off with water 
at once. 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 



75 



Test for Fats and Oils — Reduce the seeds to a powder 
by pounding. Place the powder on a sheet of paper and 
heat on a tin, but not enough to burn the paper. If 
oil is present, it will make a spot on the paper. 

Indicate the results of the tests you have made 
for starches, proteids, and sugars in various seeds by 
placing a cross in the proper column of the following 
table : 

TABLE SHOWING FOODS FOUND IN VARIOUS SEEDS 



Seed Tested 


Starch 


Proteids 


Sugars 


Much 


Utde 


None 


Much 


Little 


None 


Much 


Uttle 


None 


Corn 

Beans 

Peas 

Wheat 

Rye 





















Improvement of Plants by Seed Selection — The largest 
and heaviest seeds produce the largest and most vigorous 
plants. Light, small seeds may germinate, but the 
plants produced by them will be small and imperfect. 
No farmer can afford to slight the matter of seed selection. 
To select seeds carefully and test their vitality, means 
a larger yield to the acre, less work for the same amount 
of crops and, consequently, more profit. In considering 
this subject it might be well to take some special crop 
as a type for seed selection. 



76 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Selecting Seed Corn — Farmers select their seed corn 
in various ways. Sometimes the seed is picked out after 
the corn has been put in the crib; sometimes the ears 
are selected while the corn is being husked; sometimes 







J 







-J^u ' 






Fig. 39. Two Undesirable Ears 

the farmer goes to the field before the harvest and care- 
fully selects the most desirable ears. This last method 
is the best, because the entire plant can be taken into 
account. In picking out seed corn it is advisable to 
consider the following points: 

(1) The time it takes for the seed to mature. 

(2) Desirable characteristics of the stalks, ears, and 
kernels. 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 



77 



Time in Which Seed Should Mature — As a general 
statement, we may say that field corn should mature 
before frost comes, and that it should be late enough 
in maturing to use the entire period of good growing 
weather. 

Desirable Stalks — It is necessary to select seed ears 
from well-developed stalks having good root systems. 
The stalk should be thick at the base, it should gradually 
taper toward the top, and it should possess well-formed 
blades. Every part of the plant should be free from 
disease. A desirable stalk is shown in Figure 37. 

Desirable Ears — The shape of the ears should allow 
the greatest number of large and uniform kernels. Such 
an ear would be cylindrical, and well rounded at each 
end. The rows of kernels should be 
straight and close together. The cob 
should be of medium size. 

Desirable Kernels — The kernels 
should be wedge-shaped with straight 
edges. This allows them to fit to- 
gether so compactly on the ear that no 
space is wasted. Length is a desirable 
character to possess, because the longer 
the kernels are the larger the amount 
of grain to the ear. The kernels „. ,^ t^ • , , 

^ . . Fig. 40. Desirable 

should be unirorm m size and shape. Kernels 




78 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



In selecting type kernels from the ear, it is customary 
to take one or more at a third of the distance from the 
butt, and others the same distance from the tip. If the 




Fig. 41. Ten Prize Ears of Corn 
Showing the result of twenty years of seed selection 

kernels are too short or are defective in any way, the ear 
is discarded. 

By using the following, make an outline of this 
chapter. 

THE SEED AND GERMINATION 

1. General structure of the seed. 

'\ n • ..• f ( 1 ) Definition of germination 

z. Uermination i )o( r^ ,. • * r • . • 

( (Z) Conditions necessary ror germination. 

(a) 

(b) : 

(c)^ 

3. Impurities sometimes mixed with seeds. 



THE SEED AND GERMINATION 79 



4. State what part of the plant the plumule forms. The 
caulicle. 

5. Of what use are the cotyledons to the growing plant? 



6. Various food materials found in seeds < (2) 

1(3) 

7. Give some points under selection of seed corn. 

8. State the importance of seed selection. 

REFERENCES 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Examination and Grading of Grains, Lyon and Montgomery. 

The Book of Corn, Myriclc. 

New Handbook of Plants, Henderson. 

The Study of Corn, Shoesmith. 

Manual of Corn Judging, Shamel. 



r( 1 ) Starches and sugars 



80 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PLANT 

Parts of the Plant — It is convenient to divide the plant 
into the following parts: 



(1) 


The root. 


(2) 


The stem. 


(3) 


The leaves. 


(4) 


The flowers. 



THE ROOT 
Roots have three kinds of important work to perform; 
viz., to anchor the plant, to absorb and carry food mate- 
rial in solution, and to serve as a storehouse 
for plant food. 

Roots Anchor the Plant — Each class of plants 
is suited to certain conditions of soil, tem- 
perature, and moisture. It is an advantage, 
therefore, for plants to be fixed in a place 
suited to their needs. The roots hold the plant 
in the soil. 

Roots Absorb and Carry Moisture — You can 

easily prove that plants take food material in 
solution through their roots by performing the 
following experiment: Put the same amount ^^' . 
of water in each of two tumblers. Place grass of Radish 




THE PLANT 



81 




plants In one tumbler so the roots will be In the water. 
Some water may evaporate from both tumblers, but In 
a day or two you will see that the water In the tumbler 
containing the plants diminishes much faster 
than it does In the other one. This shows 
that water Is taken up by the roots of plants. 
What part of the root absorbs water? Place 
some radish seeds In a germlnator until the roots 
are well started. You will notice that there 
are many very fine rootlets branching from 
the main roots. Carefully wash the soil away 
from the roots of other plants and you will 
notice that they also are supplied with fine 
With Soil rootlets, which are called root 

Attached j^^ij.g J^^ j.QQ^ J^g^jj.5 ^j^gQj.]^ 

water containing food material. The man- 
ner in which this Is done may be illustrated 
as follows: 

Remove a portion of the shell at each 
end of an egg, leaving the inner tough 
membrane whole. This can be done by 
tapping the ends of the egg until the shell 
Is full of small cracks. The small pieces 
can then be picked off without tearing the 
Inner membrane. Place the egg thus prepared on a 
wide-mouthed bottle filled with water, as in Figure 44. 
The water will pass through the membrane into the egg 



Fig. 43 
Root Hair 




Fig. 44. 

Prepared to 
Show Osmosis 



82 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



and increase the volume of material inside. As a result 
the membrane at the top of the egg will bulge out. This 
passing of liquids from one side of a membrane to the 
other shows us how root hairs take up solutions, and 
is known as osmosis. 




Fig. 45. a. Tap Root of Alfalfa; b. Fibrous Root of Raspberry 

Some Roots Serve as Storehouses for Food — Some 
roots, like those of the carrot and the beet, store up food 
for the future use of the plant. These thick, fleshy 



THE PLANT 



83 




Fig. 46. Cross Section of Oak Stem 

stem into 
three parts; viz., the bark on the out- 
side, the rings of wood inside the bark, 
and the pith in the center. As the 
stem gets older the pith gradually 
becomes less.* 

The Growth of a Stem — Nearly every 
boy has made whistles in the spring 
from willows, poplars, or other kinds 
of wood. The reason the bark slips 
off so readily is because between the 
bark and the woody portion there are 
cells which become filled with sap in 
the spring. This layer of cells occupies 
the position shown in Figure 47. It is 



roots are called tap roots, 
while roots like those of grass 
plants are called fibrous^ 

THE STEM 

A Type of Stem — Cut a 

cross section and a longitu- 
dinal section of a young oak 
stem. Notice that you can 
divide the 



i.;.i 



HEARTWOO. 



SAPWOOO 



BARK 



CAMBIUM 
LAYER 



*This chapter treats of the exogenous stem only. 
For a description of the endogenous stem see any good 
botanical text-book. 



Fig. 47. Longitudinal 
Section of an Exoge- 
nous Stem 

Arrows inside the cambium 
layer show path of the sap 
up the stem ; arrows outside 
the cambium layer show 
path of sap down the stem. 



84 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

called the cambium layer. The cells of the cambium 
layer multiply and form the inner layer of bark and 
the outside layer of wood. As a result the wood is 
in the form of rings, each of which represents a 
year's growth. 




Fig. 48. Potato Plant 

Showing underground stems (tubers) and fibrous roots 

Path of Foods in the Stem— Most of the water taken 
up by the roots is needed by the leaves in their manu- 
facture of starch. How does the water get to the leaves? 
You can easily find this out by placing the cut end of 
a willow twig in red ink and letting it stand a few hours. 
Then split the stem lengthwise, and you will see that 
the ink passed up the outside portion of the wood just 
beneath the cambium layer, Figure 47. 



THE PLANT 85 



After the food material is manufactured by the leaves, 
some of it is used immediately by the plant, and some 
of it may be stored up for future use. The roots require 
some of this food to build up their cells, and some roots, 
like the tap root, store up considerable food. Where 
does this food material pass to the roots? The food 
material passes downward through the inner layer of 
bark, just outside the cambium layer. Figure 47. You 
can prove this by tightly twisting a stout wire around 
a sapling. This will stop the food material from passing 
downward and, after a time, an enlargement will form 
above the wire. As this does not interfere with the 
upward passage of water, the leaves do not wither at 
first. After several months, however, the roots suffer 
from the lack of food supply; they will then cease to 
grow and will not be able to take up sufficient water; 
consequently, the leaves will wither and finally the tree 
will die. This shows why girdling kills a tree after a 
time, while for a short period after it is girdled, no harmful 
results may be apparent. 

Some Stems Serve as Storehouses for Food Material- 
Underground stems frequently store up food. The 
common Irish potato is an example of such an under- 
ground stem. 

THE LEAVES 

The leaves are of great importance to the plant. They 
manufacture food material and transpire (give off) water. 



86 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Leaves Manufacture Plant Food — Leaves are factories 
for manufacturing starch or similar plant foods. When 
an article is manufactured several things are necessary. 
There must be a factory; there must be machinery in 
the factory; there must be some kind of power to run the 
machinery; and there must be a supply of raw material 
from which the manufactured article is made. Let us 
see if these conditions are found in the plant. If you 
will notice the leaf in the diagram, you will see little 
openings called stomata. They are the gates through 
which air is admitted to the leaves. Notice that the leaf 

contains air spaces. 
There are also cells 
filled with green gran- 
ules which are called 
chlorophyll grains.. 
They are really the 
machinery for making 
starch. What material 
does the plant use in 
making starch? It uses 
the carbon of the air 
taken in by the leaves, 
and water taken up by 
the roots. The water 
^. ,^ o . , , , and the carbon from 

rig. 49. oection or Lear ,, . , 

a. stoma ; h, air space ; c. chloroplasts thc Carbon dlOXlde of 





Roses — Queen of Garden Flowers 



THE PLANT 



87 



the air meet in the chlorophyll cells and are combined 
in such a way that starch is formed. Sunlight may 
be said to be the power, for without light no starch 
can be made. You will now see 
that sunlight, chlorophyll, water, 
and carbon from the carbon 
dioxide of the air are necessary 
in forming starch. As all green 
parts of the plant contain chlo- 
rophyll, such parts can manu- 
facture starch, but most of the 
starch is manufactured in the 
le^aves. 

Leaves Transpire Moisture — 

That moisture is given off by 
the leaves of the growing plant 
may be shown as follows: Cut a slit in a piece of card- 
board, which place around the stem of a plant, as shown 
in Figure 50. Cover the plant with a drinking glass or 
with a glass jar. Leave the plant overnight. The 
moisture that the leaves give off will collect on the 
inside of the glass. 




Fig. 50. Experiment to Show 
that Leaves Transpire Moisture 



THE FLOWER 



The flowers with their many beautiful colors and their 
fragrance serve a very important use to the plants that 
bear them. Without flowers plants could not produce 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



seeds. Without seeds most plants would soon disappear, 
because there would be no new plants to take the place 
of those that die. 

The Parts of the Flower — A flower when complete 
has four principal parts, each of which has a name and 
a function. These parts are the calyx, the corolla, the 
stamens, and the pistils. 




Fig. 51. Section of a Cherry Blossom 

a, sepal ; b, »tamen ; c, pistil ; d, petal 

The Calyx — Examine a cherry blossom. On the 
outside of the flower you will find several green leaflike 
parts, each of which is called a sepaL The sepals together 
form the calyx. In some cases the calyx is useful in 
protecting the inside parts of the flower bud. 

The Corolla — Inside of the calyx, you will notice 
several colored leaflike parts. In the plum blossom 



THE PLANT 



89 



there are five. Each of these parts is called a petal. 
The petals together make up the corolla. 

The Stamens — Inside of the corolla there is a group 
of slender parts, each with a knob on the end. These 
are called stamens. Each 
stamen has two parts. The 
slender, threadlike part is 
called the filament, and the 
knob on top of the filament 
is called the anther. Inside 
of the anther is a dustlike 
substance which is called 
pollen. The use of the anther 
is^ produce pollen. With- 
out pollen, seeds could not 
be formed. 

The Pistil — In the center 
of the flower you will find 
a part enlarged both at the top and at the bottom. (See 
Figure 5 1 .) This is called the pistil. Each plum blossom 
has one pistil; some kinds of flowers have more. There 
are three parts to the pistil; the enlarged top is called 
the stigma, the slender middle portion is called the 
style, and the enlarged part at the bottom is called the 
omry. Inside of the ovary is a small, seedlike part 
called an ovule. When fertilized by a pollen grain, each 




Fig. 52. A Typical Stamen 

a, anther containing pollen ; b, showing mode 

of attachment; c, filament 



90 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



ovule develops into a seed. The use of the pistil, then, 
is to form seed. Without it no seed could be formed. 

How the Seed Is Formed — A drop of sticky liquid 
forms on the top of the stigma, so that any pollen which 
happens to touch it will stick fast. The alighting of 
the pollen on the stigma is called 
pollination. After a grain of pollen 
alights on the stigma, it sends out 
a tube which grows down through 
the style and into the ovary, as 
indicated in Figure 53. This process 
is called fertilization. After fertiliza- 
tion the ovules grow to form seeds. 
Without fertilization, no seeds would 
be formed. 

Parts of the Flower Necessary to 
Form Seeds — The stamens and pis- 
tils are necessary in the formation 
of seeds, but it is not necessary 
that they be on the same flower or 
even on the same plant. A flower 
that has either stamens or pistils, 
but not both, is said to be imperfect. 
A flower having both stamens and pistils is a perfect 
flower. The presence of the calyx and the corolla is not 
necessary in the production of seed. These parts are 




Fig. 53. Fertilization of 
the Ovule 

a, stigma ; b, style ; c, ovary ; d, 
pollen grain on stigma ; e, pollen 
tube; g, sperm cell which has 
descended the pollen tube and will 
fuse with the egg cell. 



THE PLANT 



91 



frequently wanting. For example, they are lacking in 
the corn plant. The tassels of the corn plant are the 
stamens, and the silks are the pistils. 

Pollination — Sometimes, in the case of perfect flowers, 
the pistil receives the pollen from the anthers of the same 
flower. More often the pollen is received from some other 




Fig. 54. Strawberry Blossoms 

a, perfect ; b, imperfect 

flower. The latter way is known as cross-pollination. 
It is found that stronger seeds; that is, seeds that will pro- 
duce the best plants, are produced by cross-pollination. 

How the Pollen Is Carried — In cross-pollination, the 
pollen must be carried from flower to flower in some 



92 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



manner. The three most important ways that pollen is 
carried are: 

(1) It is carried by bees and other insects. 

(2) It is carried by the wind. 

(3) In some cases it is carried by the water. 

Bees get covered with the pollen from . the anthers. 

When they go to other flowers the pollen is brushed 

against the stigma, where it sticks. Most flowers have 
their nectar glands on the inside near 
the bottom, so the bees have to brush 
against the stigmas before they can 
get to the nectar. 

Pollen is also carried by the wind. 
This is a wasteful method; hence, 
plants that depend on wind pollina- 
tion produce a large amount of pollen. 
The pine tree is an example. In the 

case of water plants, pollen sometimes floats on the 

water from place to place. 

EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 
1. Experiment to see what portion of the caulicle 
grows most rapidly: After the caulicles on some beans 
or peas get to be about an inch long, mark them with 
waterproof ink as shown in the figure. Be sure that 
the marks are the same distance apart. As the caulicle 
grows, it will be an easy matter to see where the marks 
are farthest apart. What portion grows the most? 




Fig. 55 

Caulicle marked so 
that its growth may 
be observed. 



THE PLANT 93 



2. Mark some stems as shown in Figure 56 and 
observe which portion grows most rapidly 

3. Does light influence the direction of growth of the 
stem? Place some plants so there will be more light on 
one side of them than on the other. 
Do they grow toward the light? If so, 
turn them away from the light and see 
whether they turn back toward it again 
or not. 

4. Notice whether twining vines wind 
in the same direction the sun travels or 
in the opposite direction. Is this general 
direction of twining always the same in 
the same kind of plants? 

5. Test stems and roots of various 
kinds for starches, proteids, and sugars. Fig.56. Stem Marked 

6. Experiment to show how light ^° ^^^'^ ^^^ Growth 
affects the color of plants Grow some ^^ 

plants in the dark. Notice their light color. Place 
them in the light. What change do you see in their 
appearance? 

7. To show how the stigma holds the pollen, dust 
some flour on the stigmas of some plants and try to 
blow it away. 

8. If possible, examine the pollen from various 
flowers with a microscope and notice the diverse shapes 
of the pollen grains. 




94 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Fill the outline below and place it in your notebook. 

THE PLANT 

'(0 

(2) 

(3) 

.(4) 



1. Parts of the plant 



2. Roots 



) 

(1) Use to the plant ^ (b) 



[(2) Root hairs. 
Use 






3. Stems 



r(a) Bark. 

(I) Structure of the oak stem J (^> Cambium layer, 
(c) Wood. 
1(d) Pith. 

{(a) To support the leaves, flowers and fruit, 
(b) To carry water and plant foods, 
(c) To store up plant food. 



(1) General structure 



(a) Outside portion containing stomata. 



./ ^v.w,_.B. 01.1UV.I.U.V. I ^^^ Inside portion; air cells, chlorophyll 
Leaves -s cells. 

[(a) They manufacture 
L(2) Some uses of leaves to the plant I starch. 

[ (b) They transpire water 
(1) Use — to produce seed. 



5. The 

flower 



(2) Structure 
of a com- 
plete flower 



(a) Calyx 



((1) Made up of sepals. 



S 



1(2) Use 

(b) Corolla, 
(a) Anther filled 

( 1 ) Made up of<j with pollen. 

(c) Stamens<' U^) Filament. 
1(2) Use 

r(a) 

(1) Structured (b) 

ad) Pistils<; [(c) 

(2) Use 



THE PLANT 95 



fC) 

6. How pollen is carried < (2) 

1(3) 

CO) Seeds. 

7. Plant foods may be stored in< (2) Roots. 

1(3) 

REFERENCES 

How Plants Grow, Johnson. 

Plant Life on the Farm, Masters. 

Practical Guide to the Wild Flowers, Walton. 

Forage Crops, Shaw. 

The Nursery Book, Bailey. 



96 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XII 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 

Various Methods of Propagating Plants — We have 
learned that plants grow from seeds. Plants are also 
reared from buds. The four common ways by which 
this is done are by layering, by cuttings, by grafting, and 
by budding. 

Layering — A simple way of propagating plants from 
buds is by layering. This is done by bending the branch 
over and covering portions of it with soil. In 
some plants the branches are not bent over, 
but the soil is piled around them as shown in 
Figure 58. In a short 
time roots develop near 
the buds on the covered 
parts of the stem. The 
new shoot can then be 
cut off and planted. 
Currants, gooseberries, 
grapevines, blackber- 
ries, and raspberries 







///// '7/ /¥/ o7 



Fig. 57. Layering 

are frequently propagated in this manner. 

Propagation by Cuttings — The illustration shows some 
of the common forms of cuttings from young woody 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 



97 



stems. In cold climates woody cuttings are usually made 
in the fall, but sometimes they are made in winter or 
spring. They should be taken from parts that grew 
during the preceding summer. Cuttings may be kept 
over winter in a cool 
cellar if they are buried 
in moist sand, moss, 
or sawdust. They are 
planted in the spring. 
Grapes, currants, goose- 
berries, cranberries, wil- 
lows and poplars are 
frequently propagated 
in this manner. Many 
greenhouse plants, in- 
cluding carnations, roses, geraniums, begonias, 
themums, and fuchsias are propagated by cuttings 
commonly called "slips." Cuttings of this kind may 
be made from the leaf or from the stem. Leaf cuttings 
are usually employed in multiplying plants having thick, 
fleshy leaves, like the begonia. A stem cutting consists 
of a portion of the stem with some leaves. As a rule, 
there should not be many leaves on the stem, because in 
that case the evaporation of moisture through the leaves, 
while the roots are developing, would be too great. 
Cuttings from greenhouse plants are usually planted in 
moist sand, and after getting a good start, transplanted. 




Fig. 58. Mound Layering 

chrysan- 



98 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Grafting Is used to increase the number of any one 
kind of fruit trees and to secure select varieties of fruit. 
The tree, or part of the tree, to be grafted over is called 
the stock. The twigs to be grafted on the stock are 
called scions. 




Fig. 59. Some Different Forms of Cuttings 

a, simple cutting of cunant ; b, mallet cutting of grape ; c, root cutting of blackberry; 
d, single-eye grape cutting. 

When to Cut the Scion — Scions should be cut while the 
wood is in a resting (dormant) condition. The best time 
is after the leaves have fallen, but before heavy frosts 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 



99 




Fig. 60. Leaf 
Cutting 



come. Sometimes they are cut In the spring. Scions 
can be kept over winter if buried in sand in a cool place. 

Cleft Grafting is the best kind of graft- 
ing for large trees. To graft in this manner 
select some of the main limbs and saw them 
off where they are between I and 2 inches 
in diameter. Care should be taken that the 
bark is not loosened from any portion of 
the stub. Split the top portion of the stub 
as in Figure 61. The scion should have 
tv/o or three buds, and its lower end should 
be cut in the shape of a wedge. Pry open 
the cleft of the stock and insert the scion. Care should 
be taken that the cambium layer of the scion comes 
in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. If 
the stock is more than 
1 inch in diameter, two 
scions should be used; 
if it is smaller, one 
can be used. After the 
scions have been in- 
serted, cover the end of 
the stock, the cleft, and 

the ends or the scions "» «pl>''in8 stock for the insertion of scion; e, cross section 

, . - , ^ of stock with scion in place showing position 

With grafting wax. of cambium layer 

*Grafting wax can be made by melting together one ounce of tallow, two ounces 
of beeswax, and four ounces of resin. This should be worked until it is a light yellow. 




Cleft Grafting 



100 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Whip Grafting is used where the stock is small. There 
should not be too much difference between the size of 
stock and scion. In whip grafting stock and scion are 

cut as shown in Figure 
62. The two parts are 
then forced together, 
and wound with graft- 
ing cloth or with waxed 
cotton yarn *. Whip 
grafting is also used in 
root grafting where the 
scion is grafted upon 
the root instead of upon 
the stem. 

Budding — The proc- 
ess of budding is sim- 
ple. It consists in cut- 
ting the bud of one tree 
or shrub and placing it 
under the bark of the 
stock of another in such a way that the cambium layer 
of the bud and the cambium layer of the stock come 
together. Budding is usually done in July, August, or 
early September. 



Fig. 62. Whip Grafting of Stem 
a, stock ; b, scion ; c, stock and scion united 



*Grafting cloth is made by drawing strips of muslin through melted grafting 
wax. Cotton yarn may be waxed in the same manner. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 



101 



Cutting the Bud — Buds are found where the stems of 
the leaves join those of the twig. They are cut so that 
a little of the wood comes off with them. The leaves 
are cut off so that a portion of the stem is left by which 
to handle the buds. 




Fig. 63. Root Grafting 
a, stock ; b, scion ; c, stock and scion united and tied 

Preparing the Stock and Inserting the Bud — As a rule, 
the lower the bud is placed on the stock the better. 
The stock should be at least as large as a lead pencil. 
A T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the stock and the 



102 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



flaps of bark are loosened. The bud is inserted as shown 
in Figure 64 (d). The stock is then wound with raffia or 
cloth. As soon as the bud has united with the stock, 
the raffia or cloth should be cut to prevent girdling. 
The following spring the tree should have its top cut off 
just above the bud. 

Selecting the Parts of Plants for Propagation — Scions, 
buds, and cuttings should be selected with great care. 
They should be strong and healthy. 




Fig. 64. Budding 

a, method of cutting the bud ; b, bud cut ; c, method of preparing the stock ; d, bud 
inserted ; e, bud tied in place 

EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Propagate plants like currant, gooseberry, rasp- 
berry, or grapevine by layering. 

2. Observe that the strawberry sends out runners. 
Notice how the buds on the runners send roots into the 
ground. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 103 

3. Plant cuttings of willow, poplar, or other trees or 
shrubs mentioned. How long does it take to form roots? 

4. Plant some leaf cuttings of the begonia in clean, 
moist sand. Notice how the roots are formed. Where 
do the leaves of the new plant form? 

5. Bring some branches to school. Show how grafting 
is done by cutting stock and scion, and fitting together. 

6. Observe the condition of your fruit trees. Do 
they bear good fruit? If not, graft one or two this year 
as an experiment. Try grafting several kinds of apples 
on the same apple tree. 

7. Get some catalogs of fruit trees from nurserymen 
in your locality. Notice the varieties of scions grafted 
upon particular roots. How many varieties of scions can 
you find grafted upon a certain variety of stock? 

8. Cuttings may be started any time of year by use 
of a hotbed. The heat in a hotbed is furnished by 
fermenting manure. To make a convenient hotbed for 
school use and to grow cuttings in it proceed as follows: 

(1) Fill a deep box to within a few inches of the top 
with a mixture of decomposed manure, leaves, and straw. 
This mixture, kept moist, ferments and produces heat. 

(2) On top of the mixture place about four inches of 
sand, which should be kept moist after the cuttings are 
planted. 

(3) During cold nights the heat may be retained by 
covering the box. 



104 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

(4) The heat given off the first few days will be too 
much for the growth of cuttings. Test the tempera- 
ture of the sand with a thermometer from day to day. 
When it lowers to 80 degrees, cuttings may be planted. 

(5) In planting cuttings place them firmly in the sand. 
Label each cutting with its name and date. Later place 
upon the label the date when the cutting starts to root. 
As soon as the roots are about an inch long, the cuttings 
may be transplanted. Keep a record showing the time 
required for each species to root, and the number of days 
from planting time to transplanting time. 

Make an outline based on the following: 

PLANT PROPAGATION 

i r- .L 1 £ r(0 From seeds. 

L Common methods of I .^^ j j 

propagatmg plants |(2) From buds by 1(b) cuttings. 

I (c) grafting. 
L(d) budding. 

(I) Layering is used in 
the propagation of 



2. Cases where each method is used < 



REFERENCES 



(2) Green cuttings are 

used 

(3) Grafting and budding 



Plant Breeding— Experiments of Burbank and Nelsen, De Vries. 
Scientific Aspect of Luther Burbank, Jordan. 
Propagation of Plants, Fuller. 
Bulb Culture, Henderson. 



TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 105 



CHAPTER XIII 

TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 

Very often it is desirable to remove a tree from its 
native place of growth to another place. This process 
is called transplanting. In transplanting trees great care 
must be taken. The death of most transplanted trees 
is due to improper treatment. Some of the causes of 
death among transplanted trees are the following: 

1. They are transplanted at the wrong time of year. 

2. So many roots are injured in digging that the tree 
cannot secure enough moisture for growth. 

3. The roots are exposed too long before the tree is 
planted. 

4. When the tree Is planted the roots are crowded 
into too small a hole. 

5. The tree is planted too shallow; this exposes the 
roots to drouth. 

6. The soil is left too loose around the roots. In 
this case the wind may rock the tree to and fro enough to 
tear the small root hairs, or to loosen the larger roots. 
When the soil is too loose the root hairs do not absorb 
the proper amount of food. 

7. The soil is kept too wet after the tree is planted. 

8. The soil is allowed to dry out after the tree is 
planted. 



106 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




9. Too much of the top of the tree is left on. In 
that case more moisture is required than the roots are 
able to supply. 



How to Transplant 
Trees — In the trans- 
planting of trees the 
following should be 

observed: Fig. 65. Types of Pruning Shears 

1 . Trees should be transplanted at the proper time. All 

trees, except evergreens, should be transplanted when 

the leaves are off. In the northern states this should 

be done in the spring, but in the southern 

states it is sometimes an advantage to transplant 

trees in the fall. 

2. Care should be taken 
that the roots receive no in- 
jury. In taking up a tree 
as many of the roots should 
be left on as possible. If any 
of the roots are broken or 
badly bruised, they should 
be cut off so that smooth 
ends are left. Roots are 
frequently injured by ex- 
Fig. 66. Correct Pruning of Apple Tree ^posure tO the SUn Or the 

a, line showing where to cut back a one-year- 
old tree ; b lines showing where to cut jj.y g^ij. jj^ transplantmg 

back a two-year-old tree "-* .7 f o 




TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 



107 



trees the roots should be kept moist. It is also a good 
plan to wet the roots before the tree is planted. 

3. Trees should not be planted when the soil is too wet 
or too dry. In the former case the air cannot get to the 
roots; in the latter case the roots cannot get enough 
moisture. 

4. The hole should be large enough to receive the roots 
in their natural position. The roots should be spread 
out and the tree 

should be planted a 
little deeper than it 
grew before it was 
taken up. 

5. The soil should 
be packed about the 
roots. This is done so 
that the soil will hold 
the tree firmly. It 
also aids the roots in 
absorbing water. 

6. Some of the branch- 
es should be cut off. The 
largest portion of the roots is lost whep the tree is 
taken up. If the branches are reduced in a correspond- 
ing proportion, the roots can supply the necessary 
amount of moisture. 





Fig. 67. Correct and Incorrect Pruning 
a, correct ; b, incorrect 



108 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Progress of Decay Due to Improper 
Pruning 
a, section showing stub left ; b, section chowing the prog- 
ress of decay 



7. The soil about 
the tree should be culti- 
vated after the tree is 
planted in order to re- 
tain the moisture. 

PRUNING 

Purposes of Prun- 
ing —The following are 
some of the purposes 
of pruning trees: 

1 . In transplanting 
trees, some of the branches are cut off so the roots 
will not have to supply so much moisture. 

2. Trees are pruned to cause them to take the proper 
shape. One-year-old fruit trees 
are cut back as shown in Figure 
66, so the tree will form a proper 
head at the right height. This 
cutting back causes the upper 
buds to grow, forming a branch- 
ing top. The top is also cut back 
as indicated in the illustration. 
After a few years it is not neces- 
sary to prune the tree every year. 

Fig. 69. Wrong Method of Cut- 3. Branches are thinned by 
ting Off a Large Limb Cutting, to admit sunlight. 




TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 



109 



4. Trees are sometimes pruned to get rid of diseased 
branches. 

Cutting the Branches — Small branches should be cut 
off just above the bud. When the branches are cut off 
just below, or between the buds, the portion of the stem 
above the bud is apt to decay, and may result in the 
death of the tree. 

Large limbs should be cut close to the branch from 
which they spring. In that case the wound will gradu- 
ally heal. If a branch is cut so a stub is left, decay will 

set in. In cutting 
a large branch, care 
should be taken that 
the condition shown 
in Figure 69 is not 
produced. This can 
be avoided by cutting 
the branch as shown 
in Figure 70. After the branch 
breaks, the stub should be cut off 
close to the tree, and covered with 
some preparation to protect the 
wound from insects and fungous 
growths. White lead is commonly 
used for this purpose, and may be applied to the cut 
surface with a paint brush. 




Fig. 70. The Right Way of 
Removing a Large Limb 



1 1 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Pull up a plant so a large number of the roots are 
torn off. Carefully dig up another plant of the same 
kind and size, leaving as many roots on as possible. 
Plant both of these in the same kind of soil supplied 
with the same amount of moisture, and notice whether 
there is any difference in growth. 

2. Carefully dig up two plants of the same kind and 
size. Place one in mud and leave the other exposed to 
the air and sunshine for an hour. Plant both and notice 
whether there is any difference in growth. 

3. Bring a small tree to school and learn how to prune 
it. How many of its branches would you cut off? Where 
would you cut them ? Which branches would you leave ? 

4. If you have some valueless trees, experiment on 
them by trimming them in odd shapes. 

5. Set out some trees in the school yard. 

Fill the blanks in the following outline and place it 
in your notebook : 

TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 

r(0 ..•• 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

(8) 

1(9) 



Death of transplanted trees ^ 
are due to the following 



TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 



11 



2. Things to observe in^ 
transplanting trees 



3. Purposes of pruning 



(I) 

(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 
(6) 
1(7) 

fd) 

i(2) 

1(3) 



4. Where to cut the branches 



(1) A small branch should be 

cut off just above the bud. 

(2) Large branches should be 

cut off so that no stub is 
left. 



5. When to prune- 



REFERENCES 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

The Pruning Book, Bailey. 

Vegetable Growing, Watts. 

Beginner's Guide in Fruit Growing, Waugh. 



112 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XIV 

PLANT ENEMIES 

The farmer has to spend considerable time in fighting 
plant enemies. The principal enemies of plants are 
insects, bacteria, fungi, and weeds. 

INSECTS 

A true insect has a head, a thorax or chest, and an 
abdomen made up of several ringlike sections. It has 

six legs attached to 
the thorax. Some in- 
sects have wings and 
some do not. Insects 
breathe through lit- 
tle holes (spiracles) 
in their sides. 

Growth of the In- 
sect — Most insects 
pass through four wonderful stages of growth, viz.: 

1 . The egg. The grown insect lays the eggs. Some 
kinds lay on plants, others in rotten wood, still others 
in the ground. 

2. The egg hatches into a grub or a caterpillar, known 
as the larva. The grubs are big eaters, and are the cause 
of most of the damage to plants by insects. 



Ikdd 




Fig 71. Insect 

Showing head, chest, abdomen and spiracles 



PLANT ENEMIES 113 

3. The larva spins a cocoon about itself, or wraps 
itself in a leaf. It is then called the pupa. During this 
stage the wings are developing and transformations of 
the body are taking place. The insect does not eat 
while in this state. 

4. After the pupa stage the full-grown insect emerges. 

Classes of Insects — The farmer has to deal with two 
classes of insects; viz., biting, and sap-sucking insects. 




a be d 



Fig. 72. The Four Stages of Insect Growth (CodHng Moth) 
o, egg greatly enlarged ; b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, adult insect 

Biting Insects — These insects have jaws and chew the 
parts of the plants upon which they feed. The potato 
beetle is an example. This class of insects can be killed 
with poisons. One pound of Paris green to 50 gallons 
of water is generally used for spraying plants.* A 
stronger solution is used for spraying potatoes. Of 
course, poisons should not be used on plants that are 
soon to be eaten. (For other poisons, see the Appendix.) 

Sap-Sucking Insects — An insect of this class does not 
have jaws. It has a tube or beak through which it 

*About four pounds of Hme may be added to every fifty gallons of this solution 



14 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



sucks the sap of plants. The plant louse is a sap-sucking 
insect. The application of poisons to plants will not kill 
sap-sucking insects, because they obtain the sap beneath 
the outer tissues of the plant. They can be killed by 
spraying with something that will close their breathing 
pores, or corrode their bodies. Kerosene emulsion is 
commonly used and is made as follows: 




Fig. 73. Biting Insects 



One half pound of hard soap, or one quart of soft soap, 
IS dissolved in one gallon of hot water, then two gallons 
of kerosene are added. This should be thoroughly 
stirred for a few minutes. About 30 gallons of water 
should be added when the emulsion is to be applied to 
the foliage. (For other insecticides, see the Appendix.) 

Other Methods — If the farmer can find out where 
the insects lay their eggs, he can destroy them. If the 
eggs are in rubbish, he can destroy them by burning the 



PLANT ENEMIES 



115 



rubbish. If they are In the ground, he should plow in 
the fall, so that they will freeze during the winter. 

BACTERIAL DISEASES 

One of the most destructive bacterial diseases of fruit 
trees is fire blight or pear blight. It is common on pear, 
apple, quince, and plum trees. The blossoms and tips 
of the twigs die, the leaves turn black, and cankers form 
on the limbs of the tree. When the fruit is affected, it 
turns brown and finally dies upon the tree. 




Fig. 74. Sucking Insects 

The only satisfactory treatment for this disease is to 
remove the diseased portion. The wound should be 
washed with a solution made by dissolving one part of 
corrosive sublimate in 1,000 parts of water. This sub- 
stance is very poisonous if taken internally and must be 
handled with great care. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES 

Fungous diseases include mold, smut, and rust. They 
are caused by little dustlike particles called spores. The 



116 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



spores float In the air and settle on plants or other objects 
where they grow and multiply. Have you ever stepped 
on a dry puff-ball and noticed the cloud of dust that 
came from it? The cloud of dust was composed of 
millions of spores. 

Treatment of Fungous Diseases — The best way to 
treat these diseases is to apply remedies that will prevent 




Fig. 75. Making Bordeaux Mixture 

the growing of the spores. A common remedy is Bor- 
deaux mixture, which you can prepare as follows: 

Put 25 gallons of water in each of two wooden tubs. 
Put six pounds of copper sulphate (bluestone) in a sack 
and hang the sack in one of the tubs. In the other tub 



PLANT ENEMIES 117 



put four pounds of lime. When the copper sulphate 
has dissolved and the lime has slaked, pour equal quan- 
tities of the liquids together in a barrel, as shown in the 
illustration. The solution should be strained by placing 
a strainer across the barrel. If preferred, the mixture 
may be made stronger and diluted afterward. When 
Bordeaux mixture is properly prepared it has a sky-blue 
color (not green.) To test it, allow a drop of a 10 per 
cent, solution of yellow prussiate of potash to fall on the 
surface of the mixture. If the drop turns a reddish 
brown, too much copper is present, and more lime must 
be added to the Bordeaux preparation. If the drop 
stays yellow, the mixture is all right. Frequently 
Bordeaux mixture injures peach trees; therefore it is made 
weaker when it is to be applied to them. (As to the 
various ways of making Bordeaux mixture, see the 
Appendix.) 

Sometimes fungous diseases can be prevented by treat- 
ing the seed. Oat smut and wheat smut can be prevented 
by soaking the seed in a solution made by adding one 
pound of formalin* to 36 gallons of water. The seed 
should be soaked in this for 10 minutes, and then be 
spread out to dry. One pound of formalin to 30 gallons 
of water is used for smut on barley, and for potato scab. 
(For other fungicides, see the Appendix.) 

*Formalin is a 40 per cent, solution of formaldehyde. 



118 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



WEEDS 

"Weeds are plants that persist In growing where they 
are not wanted." They are objectionable because they 
rob the crops of food, moisture, and sunlight. They also 
serve as a breeding place for insects. 

Classification of Weeds — In order that the farmer may 
be able to fight weeds to the best advantage he should 
know something of their classification and life history. 
Weeds are divided into three classes: annuals, biennials, 
and perennials. 

Annual plants come up from seeds, blossom, ripen 
their seeds, and then die; all in one season. Ragweed, 
wild mustard, wild oats, shepherd's purse, and purslane 
are examples of this class of weeds. 

Method of Destroying Annual 
Weeds — The way to destroy 
weeds of this class is to prevent 
them from going to seed. This 
can be done by cutting them off 
or pulling them up. 

Biennial plants live two years. 

The first year they come up from 

seed, grow, and store up food in 

the roots. They do not produce 

, w, , ,o . seed the first year, and all the 

Annual Weed (Spiny •" 

Cocklebur) plant cxccpt the root dies. Ihe 




Fig 76, 



PLANT ENEMIES 



119 



second year the plant uses the food In the thickened root, 
grows, produces seed, and dies, root and all. Dandelion, 
barn grass, wild parsnip, bull thistle, and burdock 
are weeds of this class. 

Method of Destroying 
Biennial Weeds — This 
class of weeds can be 
destroyed by pulling up 
the roots, or by cutting 
off the part of the plant 
above the ground so 
that seeds will not be 
formed the second year. 
As a matter of fact, when 
the tops are cut off, bien- 
nial weeds sometimes live 
longer than two years, 
because the food supply 
of the roots Is not used. 
This win not happen If the plants are just cut before 
the seeds ripen. If persistent In cutting the tops off 
close to the ground, this class of weeds can be destroyed. 

Perennial weeds grow from seeds, and may also multiply 
from some form of root or underground stem. This class 
of plants may be said to live from year to year. Canada 
thistle, quack grass, cow thistle, yellow dock, and milk- 
weed are perennials. 




Fig. 77. Biennial Weed (Burdock) 



20 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Method of Destroying Perennial Weeds — As weeds of 
this class grow from roots or underground stems as well 
as from seeds, they are very troublesome. Pulling them 
up will destroy them, but this can 
be done only on small areas. We 
have learned that plants cannot 
grow without leaves to manu- 
facture food. If the tops of the 
plants are kept cut off close to 
the ground, the roots will finally 
starve. This is the common way 
of destroying perennial weeds. 
Fall plowing is recommended 
where it will expose the roots to 
the action of frost. Sometimes 
weeds can be smothered by sowing 
some crop which covers the ground with a thick growth. 




Fig. 78. A Perennial Weed 
(Quack Grass) 



EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Collect cocoons and watch them in the spring to 
see how the insect comes out of them. 

2. Examine the mouths of several insects. Are they 
sap-sucking or biting insects? How do insects breathe? 

3. Examine kinds of smut and notice the spores. 

4. Moisten a piece of bread and place it under a 
drinking glass. Notice how fast the mold grows. If 
possible, examine the mold with a microscope. 



PLANT ENEMIES 121 

5. Make a list of the various different ways seeds 
are spread. 

6. Make a list of weeds found in your locality, and 
state how each may be destroyed. 

7. Bring various weeds to school, learn to what class 
each belongs and how to destroy it. 

8. Has any crop in your locality ever been ruined 
by insects? If so by what insects? Could the crop have 
been saved? How? 

9. Make a collection of weeds at the time of seeding. 
Mount them on pieces of cardboard. Label each with 
the name of the weed, the date when found, the locality 
where it was found, and the kind of soil upon which 
the weed grew. Also state its time and manner of 
seeding. 

10. Make a collection of weed seeds. The seeds may 
be kept for future observation by placing them in small 
bottles. 

1 1 . Count the seeds upon one mature pigweed. If 
each of the seeds grew, how many plants would be pro- 
duced next year? How many seeds would next year's 
plants produce if each pigweed had the same number 
of seeds as the one you examined this year? If each 
of these seeds grew, how many pigweeds would be 
produced ? 

Answer these questions when 50 per cent, of the seeds 
grow. When 10 per cent, of the seeds grow. 



122 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Complete the following outline of plant enemies : 

(1) The egg. 

(2) The larv 

(3) The pupi 
[(4) The adult insect. 



I. Insects 



Plant 



1 Ci. • rr r • .. (2) The larva 

, otages in lire or insect i )ii t-i 

* ' (3) The pupa 



2. Classes 



II. Plant organisms 



(1) Biting insects — can be destroyed 

by applying poisons. 

(2) Sap-sucking insects — can be killed 

with kerosene emulsion. 



1 . Bacteria 



(1) Cause plant diseases. 
[ (2) Prevention. 



(1) Caused by 
2. Fungous diseases \ spores. 

(2) Prevention. 



3. Weeds ^ 



(1) What are weeds r 



(2) Classes of weeds. 

(a) Annuals. Live 1 year. 

(b) 

(c) 

(3) Methods of destroying 
each class. 

(a) Annuals 

(b) Biennials 

(c) Perennials 



REFERENCES 

Weeds of the Farm and Garden Pammel. 

Insects and Insecticides, Weed. 

Insects Injurious to Vegetables, Chittenden. 

Fumigation Methods, Johnson. 

Fungous Diseases of Plants, Duggar. 

Stories of Insect Life, Weed. 

Injurious Insects and the Use of Insecticides, Sempers. 



THE ORCHARD 123 



CHAPTER XV 

THE ORCHARD 

Every farmer should grow enough fruit for his own use. 
Some kinds of fruit can be grown wherever other crops 
can be raised. Of course, it does not pay the farmer to 
raise fruit when the orchard is neglected. Fruit trees 
must be properly selected, planted, and pruned. Their 
diseases must be treated and insect pests destroyed. 

THE APPLE 

The apple tree is one of the longest lived of fruit trees. 
It begins to bear fruit when from 5 to 10 years of age, 
and sometimes lives a hundred years. Some precocious 
varieties may bear a few specimens when younger than 
five years. 

Soil Suitable for Apple Trees — Apple trees will grow 
on almost any soil properly prepared. As has been 
stated before, fruit trees require considerable potash. 
The condition of the land must be considered, however, 
when applying fertilizers. 

Selection of Varieties — There are certain varieties 
suited to various sections of the country. (See the 
Appendix.) Make a list of varieties suited to your 
locality. 



124 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Planting and Pruning — Apple trees should be planted 
when about two years old and set at the proper distance 
apart. This distance will depend upon the variety of 
the tree, the climate, and the soil. When the trees are 
planted close together, cultivation and spraying are 
interfered with, and the apple crop is reduced. The 
trees should be planted at least 30 feet apart; spreading 
varieties farther. Immediately after planting the trees 
should be pruned. (See Chapter XIII.) 

Insect Enemies and Plant Diseases — These must 
receive attention at the proper time, otherwise the fruit 
crop may be seriously damaged. 

The Codling Moth — The codling moth causes millions 
of dollars of damage to apples every year. The full- 
grown insect is a brownish-gray moth which lays its eggs 
on the calyx end of the fruit, or on the leaves or the 
branches. The eggs hatch into larvae. The larva as 
it hatches from the egg is about one-sixteenth of an inch 
long. It eats its way into the fruit, usually at the calyx 
end. Finally it leaves the fruit and finds a place of 
shelter under the bark of the tree, in cracks, or in holes, 
where it spins a cocoon about itself, and later the full- 
grown insect emerges. There may be two or three 
generations in a year. 

Methods of Destroying the Codling Moth — As the 

codling moth is a biting insect, it can be poisoned. Paris 



THE ORCHARD 



25 




Fig. 79. A Codling Moth Larva and Its Work 



green is commonly used 
for this purpose. It 
should be sprayed on 
the tree just after the 
blossoms have fallen, 
and again in about 
10 days, before the 
calyxes close. The 
spray should be directed downward, so that it will fill 
the calyx cups with poison. 

The full-grown larva can sometimes be trapped by 
placing cloth bands about the tree. The bands should 
be left loose at the bottom so the larvae can easily get 
under to spin their cocoons. All loose bark should be 
scraped off the tree. Every few days the bands should 
be examined and the insects destroyed. 

Birds destroy a large number of larvae. When you 
see a woodpecker pecking away at a tree, let him alone. 
He may save you many dollars by 
destroying the insects. 

The Apple Tree Borer — The round- 
headed apple-tree borer is, next to the 
codling moth, the worst enemy to 
apple growing. The flat-headed borer 
injures the trees to a less extent, pig. 80. When to Spray 
The larvae bore into the tree and for Codling Moth 

I 1 . 1, . rj-11 a, right time to spray; b, too 

sometimes completely girdle it. 1 he late to spray 




126 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



old adage, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure," is especially true in regard to this insect. The 
best preventive is made by adding washing soda to soft 






h c 

Fig. 81. Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer 
a, larva ; b, pupa ; c, beetle 

soap until it is about as thick as paint. If desired, one 

part of carbolic acid may be added to every 80 parts 

of the solution. The remedy should be applied to the 

trunk and the larger limbs with a 

whitewash brush. This also serves 

as a protection against scale insects 

and fungous diseases. The wash 

should be applied at intervals of 

two to four weeks during May, 

June, July, and possibly during 

August. If the borers have already 

made entrance to the tree, they 

Fig. 82. Flat-Headed Apple Hiay bc killed by forcing a fine 

Tree Borer ^jj-g Jj^j-q their burrows. Care 

a, larva; i, pupa; c, head of larva; i i i i i 1 

j.beeUe should DG takcn not to cut the 




THE ORCHARD 



127 



bark of the tree any more than is absolutely necessary. 
Some recommend the application of kerosene emulsion 
wherever the castings of the larva are seen on the bark. 
It is claimed that the kerosene is absorbed by the castings 
and passes through the burrows. The amount of kero- 
sene necessary is so small that it does not injure the tree. 




Fig. 83. Tent Caterpillar and Web 



128 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The Tent Caterpillar is familiar to nearly every one. 
The eggs, laid in circular masses around the twigs, should 
be burned during winter or early spring. When the 
caterpillars are within the nest, they can be destroyed 
by burning the nest with a torch. Spraying with Paris 
green will also kill them. The tent caterpillar is seldom 
found on trees that are regularly sprayed. 

The Fall Web Worm is often mistaken for the tent 
caterpillar. It appears later in the season. Its web 

incloses the foliage upon 
which it feeds, while 
that of the tent cater- 
pillar is usually built 
in the crotches of the 
branches and does not 
inclose the leaves. The 
web worm feeds inside 
the web; the tent cater- 
pillar goes outside of 
the web to obtain its 
food. The eggs of the 
web worm are laid on 
the leaves. It is not 
easy to destroy the eggs, 
^ „ „, , „, because they are discov- 

Fig. 84. Fall Web Worm ^ ^^ 

Notice that the web incloses the tips of the twigs. ereCl With dimCUlty . 1 tit 




THE ORCHARD 



129 




Fig. 85. Canker Worm 

a, male moth ; b, female moth ; e, eggs ; /, larva ; 
g. pupa 



tents should be burned 
when they are small. 
Spraying with poisons is 
most effective just before 
the caterpillars hatch. 

The Canker Worm — 

The canker worm is also 

called the ** measuring 

worm,*' because of the 

way it has of looping up 

its body when crawling. 

There are two species 

of the canker worm; 

one appears in early 

spring and the other in 

autumn. The damage 

caused by this insect is 

due to the larvae which 

feed upon the leaves of 

the trees. After the 

larva is full grown, it enters the ground, where it changes 

to the adult insect. As the female moth is wingless, it 

cannot fly, and may be prevented from ascending the 

tree to deposit the eggs by placing a band of cloth coated 

with tar around the base of the tree. Fall plowing will 

also destroy the insects by exposing them to the winter's 

cold. Spraying with arsenate of lead, or with Paris 




Fig. 86. Apple Aphis 
a, male; h, female 



130 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



green, is recommended. Many of the common birds 
feed upon the canker worm. 

The Apple Aphis or louse may be destroyed by repeated 
sprayings with kerosene emulsion, or with tobacco water 
made by boiling one pound of tobacco in two gallons of 
water. The aphis is destroyed by the aphis lion (lace- 
winged fly), and also by the familiar ladybug. 

The Woolly Aphis — In the early stages of its life this 
insect covers itself with a white substance for protection. 
The insects are usually found in groups 
on the trunk or on the roots of the tree. 
They feed upon the sap. Where they are 
numerous, they may cause such irrita- 
tion that galls or swellings appear on 
the tree. They are easily killed by the 
application of kerosene emulsion when 
on the trunk. When they are on the 
roots they are difficult to destroy. The 
best remedy, in this case, is to dig away 
the upper surface of the soil around the 
tree and to apply about two pounds 
of tobacco to the surface thus prepared. The soil 
should then be replaced and a liberal amount of water 
applied. The tobacco water will soak through the 
ground to the roots, killing the insects with which it 
comes in contact. 




Fig. 87 
Woolly Aphis 



THE ORCHARD 



131 



Leaf Rollers, Folders, and Crumplers — Although these 
insects eat the foliage, their chief injury is in preventing 
the leaves from performing their proper functions by 
rolling or folding them. The leaf crumpler rolls itself 
in a leaf and passes the winter in that state. The larvae 




Fig. 88. Apple Leaves Injured by Leaf Roller 

emerge early in the spring and feed upon the foliage. 
These insects can be controlled by spraying with poisons. 

Scale Insects — There are several varieties of scale 
insects. Probably the most common and destructive of 
this class is the San Jose scale. It does not confine 
its attack to fruit trees, but infests shade trees and 



132 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 89. San Jose Scale 

a, healthy twig ; b, twig infested with 
scale ; c, enlarged scale 



shrubbery as well The Insect is 
smaller than a very small pinhead, 
and is protected by a grayish 
covering. It multiplies very rapid- 
ly. In feeding it inserts its beak 
into the plant tissues and sucks 
out the juices. Owing to their 
protective covering such strong 
contact insecticides are necessary 
to destroy them that these must 
be applied in winter or early spring 
while the tree is dormant. The 
most widely used remedies are 
miscible or soluble oils, and the 
lime-sulphur wash.* The ladybird 
beetles feed upon scale insects. 

Leaf Blight can usually be pre- 
vented by spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture when the trees are in full 
foliage. Two or three applica- 
tions at intervals of 10 days are 
recommended. Twig blight should 
be cut out. In removing the dis- 
eased twig, cut a little below the 
blighted part, and sponge the wound with a solution of 
corrosive sublimate (one part of corrosive sublimate to 




Fig. 90. Bitter Rot 



''Directions for making these are given in the Appendi 



THE ORCHARD 



133 



1,000 parts of water). Disinfect the knives with this 
solution to prevent carrying the disease from one tree 
to another. 

Bitter Rot starts from spores, and first appears on the 
apple as small light brown spots, which afterwards 
enlarge and become depressed. As the spots become 
larger they become darker, and sometimes cause the 




Fig. 91. Apple Scab 

fruit to dry and shrink, as shown in the illustration. 
The best treatment is to spray with Bordeaux mixture at 
intervals of two weeks for about three months after the 
fruit is set. To avoid staining the fruit, as the apple 
nears maturity, use the ammoniacal copper carbonate 
solution* in place of the Bordeaux mixture. This dis- 
ease is also found on the bark of the branches and the 



*See the Appendix for the formula for the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. 



134 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

twigs, being known as canker. In this case, the diseased 
area is sooty black and sunken. The diseased part should 
be cut out and the wounds covered with white lead, or the 
diseased branches should be cut off and burned. 






b 

Fig. 92. The Peach Borer 

Apple Scab — This common disease of the apple is 
found on the buds and the leaves as well as on the fruit. 
The remedy is to spray with Bordeaux mixture just after 
the buds open, and again just after the petals have 
fallen. Usually two more applications, at intervals of 
two weeks, will be required. 

Leaf Spot Diseases — Leaf spot is a name applied to 
a variety of fungous diseases. The affected leaves are 
more or less covered with brown spots of different sizes. 
Bordeaux mixture is used as a preventive. The first 
application should be made two weeks after the petals 
have fallen, and another about six or seven weeks later. 

THE PEACH • . ^ 

The peach tree begins to bear fruit when tKree or four 
years old. It succeeds well only in certain parts of the 




Harvesting Peach Crop 



THE ORCHARD 



35 



country. In regard to selecting varieties suitable for 
any locality, see the Appendix. Potash fertilizers should 
be applied rather than nitrogenous fertilizers. A large 
amount of nitrogen causes an excessive growth of the 
wood and leaves at the expense of the fruit. The fruit 
of the peach is borne principally on the young shoots; 
hence the tree should be pruned to encourage a growth 
of young wood. 




Peach Yellows 



Peach Rosette 



Enemies of the Peach Tree — The peach borer is as 
much an enemy to the peach tree as the apple-tree borer 
is to the apple tree. The only satisfactory way to get 
rid of the borers is to dig them out with a sharp wire. 



136 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette are very destructive 
diseases. No remedy is known for them. The only 
thing so far recommended is to dig out and burn the 
affected trees. 

Black Spot — This fungous disease spreads rapidly from 
fruit to fruit, especially in wet, hot weather. No diseased 

fruit should be allowed to lie on 
the ground. It should be burned. 
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture 
has been recommended . 1 1 should 
be remembered, however, that 
spraying with fungicides, or 
poisons, is likely to damage the 
foliage of peach trees. On this 
account the self-boiled lime sul- 
phur mixture is recommended in 
place of the Bordeaux 
mixture.* 

PLUM AND CHERRY 

These fruits can be 
grown in nearly every 
portion of the United 
States. The trees begin 
to bear when three or 




Fig. 95. Black Spot of the 
Peach 




Fig. 96, The Plum Curculio and Its Work 



*The formula for the self -boiled 
lime sulphur mixture is given in 
the Appendix. 



THE ORCHARD 



137 



four years old, 
and should be 
planted when 
they are one or 
two years old. 
Varieties for va- 
rious localities 
are given in the 
Appendix. 

The Plum Cur- 
culio is found in 
nearly all plum 
orchards. It is 
also found to a 
considerable ex- 




Fig. 97. Curculio Catcher 



tent on other fruits. The beetle lays an egg in each plum 
and makes a crescent-shaped cut around it, as shown in 
the illustration. The egg hatches into a larva, which eats 
its way into the fruit, which it causes to drop before 
ripening. The larva enters the ground and becomes a 
pupa. The mature beetle finally comes forth and passes 
the winter in cracks and under the loose bark. 

If these insects are suddenly alarmed, they will drop 
to the ground. By placing sheets under the tree and 
thumping the tree with padded sticks most of them can 
be caught. A convenient device for running under the 
tree is shown in Figure 97. It is a good plan to let 



138 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



chickens run in the orchard, as they will destroy the 
larvae. Paris green will kill the curculio, and should be 
applied as soon as the petals fall. 




Fig. 98. Plum Gouger and Infested Fruit 

The Plum Gouger — The work of this insect resembles 
that of the curculio. It lays its eggs in the plums, but 
makes no crescent-shaped marks. The larvae feed upon 
the contents of the pit until they are full grown. The 
adult insect does a great deal of damage by cutting a 
hole through the calyx of the flower and eating the 



THE ORCHARD 139 



ovule, which would otherwise develop into the seed. 
The methods of destroying this insect and the curculio 
are the same. 

Plum-Tree Aphis — The remedies are the same as for 
the apple-tree aphis. 

Brown Rot — This serious disease, which attacks the 
fruit, blossoms and twigs of the plum, cherry, and peach, 
first appears in the form of brown spots. The disease 
is more common in wet than in dry seasons. Infested 
fruits should not be allowed to lie on the ground, but 
should be burned. Spray with Bordeaux mixture, the 
same as for apple scab. 

Black Knot is easily recognized by the yellow-colored 
swellings on the twigs and small branches. The knots 
get darker as they get older. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture, as a preventive, is recommended, but the only 
satisfactory method of eradicating the disease is to cut 
off and burn the diseased limbs. 

Leaf Blight — To prevent this disease, spray with 
Bordeaux mixture after the blossoms are shed, and two 
or three times more at intervals of two weeks. 

Yellows and Rosette — The only way to deal with these 
diseases is to dig out and burn the affected trees. 

Powdery Mildew — In case of this disease in cherry 
trees, spray with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks 



140 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

after the leaves are out, and repeat several times at 
intervals of ten days. 

EXERCISES 

1. Examine various kinds of apples for the codling 
moth. Notice the manner in which the grub tunnels 
through the apple. 

2. Examine the plum for the curculio. Notice the 
peculiar manner in which the eggs are laid. 

3. Observe fruits and trees of various orchards. Make 
a list of the diseases you find. 

4. What varieties of apples are grown in your locality? 
Are any varieties grown that are not suited to your locality 
according to the Appendix? If so, do they grow well? 

Make an outline for apple, plum, and cherry. In- 
clude the following : 

1. Varieties suited to your locality. 

2. Planting. 

3. Insect enemies, and diseases; treatment for each. 

REFERENCES 

The Fruit Garden, Barry. 

The American Fruit Culturist, Thomas & Wood. 

Fumigation Methods, Johnson. 

Peach Culture, Fulton. 

Successful Fruit Culture, Maynard. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Fruit Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing, Waugh. 

Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Hume. 

The American Apple Orchard, Waugh. 

Pear Culture for Profit, Quinn. 

Plums and Plum Culture. Waugh. 

Beginner's Guide to Fruit Growing, Waugh. 



SMALL FRUITS 141 



CHAPTER XVI 

SMALL FRUITS 

Importance of Growing Small Fruits — The growing of 
small fruits is profitable. Whether the fruit is grown for 
market, or for home use, the size of the fruit garden 
should not be so large that it cannot receive proper care. 
It should be planned so most of the cultivation can be 
done with a horse. This will save much time, and enable 
one to care for a larger area than he could otherwise. 

THE STRAWBERRY 

Strawberries are easy to raise and the yield is large. 
A strawberry bed containing 5 or 6 square rods will 
furnish fruit enough for the average family. The plants 
multiply rapidly from the runners which they send out. 

The Soil and Its Preparation — Light soil is better than 
heavy for strawberry plants. A cultivated crop should 
be grown on the land for at least one year previous to 
the setting out of the plants in order that weeds may be 
kept out and the larvae of grass root loving insects 
destroyed as much as possible. 

Before setting the plants, the soil should be plowed 
deeply and thoroughly pulverized by means of a harrow. 
The surface should be left smooth. Nitrogen and potash 



142 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

fertilizers should be applied. The best way to apply 
these is in the form of well decomposed barnyard 
manure. Potash can be supplied by applying unleached 
wood ashes. 

Selection of Plants — Only the varieties that succeed 
best in your locality should be planted. (See the Appen- 
dix.) Young plants with an abundance of roots with small 
crowns, as shown in the illustration, should be selected. 

Setting the Plants — It is very important that straw- 
berry plants be set at the right depth. Care should be 
taken that the crown is not covered and that the roots 
are spread out. They should be planted about 1 8 inches 
apart, in rows 4 feet apart. 

Perfect and Imperfect Flowers — Strawberry plants 
bearing imperfect flowers will not be productive unless 
some plants bearing perfect flowers are planted near 
them. For this reason it is best to set every third row 
with plants bearing perfect flowers. 

Treatment of Vines — The object the first year is to 
produce a vigorous growth of plants; therefore, the 
blossoms should be picked the first season to keep the 
plants from bearing. This causes the plants to become 
strong so they are better able to produce fruit the second 
year. The vines should not be allowed to run together 
in a solid mat. They may be allowed to mat in the rows, 
but they should be cultivated between the rows. 



SMALL FRUITS 



143 



Mulching — A mulch acts as a protection against 
freezing and thawing. Marsh hay, or straw free from 
weed seeds, is commonly used for this purpose. In the 
North it is best to put the mulch on as soon as the ground 




Fig. 99. Strawberry Plant With Good Roots and Small Crown 
a, whole plant ; b, showing where to prune ; c, plant properly pruned 

begins to freeze. In cold countries it is a good plan to 
leave the mulch on late in the spring because the blossoms, 
thus retarded, are not so apt to freeze. The mulch can 
then be raked between the rows and left on until the 



144 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



berries are picked. In this way it serves to keep down 
the weeds, and to prevent the earth from being washed 
against the fruit when there are heavy showers. 

Picking the Berries — Berries picked for market sell 
best when they are graded and placed in quart or pint 
boxes. The grading is done as the berries are picked 
from the vines. 








Fig. 100. Matted-Row Cultivation of Strawberries 

Treatment of the Strawberry Bed After the Berries 
Are Harvested — After the strawberries are picked, the 
mulch, if any has been used, should be removed. Some 
people mow off and rake up the tops of the plants with 
the mulch and burn them. This destroys some harmful 



SMALL FRUITS 145 




insects and fungous diseases. The cultivator should be 

freely used and if the rows are narrowed down to 6 inches 

in width it is all the 

better, as new plants 

will be formed on each 

side of the row by fall. 

Not more than three 

crops of berries should Fig. 101. Graded and Ungraded Fruit 

be picked from the a, ungraded -.i. graded 

same bed. After that many crops have been obtained, 
the plants should be plowed under. 

INSECTS AFFECTING THE STRAWBERRY 

Strawberry Root Louse — When the plants do not 
attain their normal size, or when they are wilted, they 
should be examined for lice on the roots. Frequently, 
the aphis is found when ant hills are present in the straw- 
berry hills. The lice can be destroyed by burning over 
the infested patch late in the fall. As a precaution, all 
plants to be set out should be dipped in tobacco water 
made by steeping one pound of tobacco in a gallon of 
water for a half hour. 

Strawberry Leaf Roller — There are two or more broods 
of this insect a year. Their presence is easily detected 
by the folded leaves. This insect spends all of its life 
above the ground; hence it can be easily destroyed by 
burning over the patch soon after the fruiting season. 



146 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

THE RASPBERRY 

The two varieties of raspberries are the red and the 
black. They multiply from suckers that grow from the 
roots or by the ends of the branches taking root in the 
ground. The plants begin to bear fruit when they are 
two years old. 

The Soil — Raspberries thrive well on moderately rich 
soils. The preparation of the soil should be the same as 
for the strawberry. Fertilizers may be applied in the 
shape of barnyard manure or commercial fertilizers. 

Planting and Cultivating — The plants are usually set 
about 4 feet apart, in rows 5 or 6 feet apart. At first 
they should be cultivated in both directions. Later the 
plants may be allowed to form a hedge, at which time 
cultivation will be in one direction only. 

Pruning — The top buds of the young shoots, which 
spring from the roots, should be pinched off. This will 
cause the growth of more side branches, which will bear 
fruit the following year. All the old canes that have 
borne fruit, as well as all diseased shoots, should be cut out. 

Preparation of Plants for Winter — In cold climates it 
is sometimes necessary to protect the plants by bending 
them over and covering them with straw. 

EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Find out from fruit growers what the average 
yield of small fruit is in your locality. 



SMALL FRUITS 147 



2. Plan a small fruit garden on your farm. By draw- 
ing a diagram indicate where you would have each kind 
of fruit. Arrange the rows so a horse can be used in 
cultivating. 

3. Cover the end of a strawberry runner with earth 
and see how long it is before the roots start. See how 
long it takes for the roots to become an inch long. Count 
the number of plants that have grown from one old plant 
and estimate the number of plants there will be next 
year if each of the young plants produces as many as 
the old one did. 

4. Bend over some black raspberry (black-cap) plants 
and cover the tips with earth. Notice how roots form. 

5. Get catalogs from nurserymen in your state and 
study the varieties of ^ach kind of fruit. Which stand 
frost best? Which are best for marketing? Which are 
best for table use? 

6. Make a list of the varieties of strawberries and 
raspberries best suited to your locality as given in the 
Appendix. Place the list in your notebook. Ask the 
farmers which they prefer. Compare these with your list. 

7. Find out the cost of strawberry plants for setting 
an acre, and the cost of caring for them until the 
strawberry patch is three years old. Find out the 
average yield per acre in your locality, and the average 
price of the berries. Compute the profit per acre. 

Make an outline, including the following: 



148 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

THE STRAWBERRY 

1. Kinds of plants suited to your locality^ 

2. The best soil for strawberries 



3. Preparation of the soil 



(1) It must be plowed. 

(2) It should be pulverized with 
a harrow and left with a 
smooth surface. 

(3) It may be necessary to apply 
fertilizers in the shape of barn- 
yard manure or wood ashes. 

4. Selection of plants. Young plants with a good root 
growth and small crowns should be selected. 

r(l) Plants must be set at the proper 

5. Setting the plants^ time. 

L(2) The roots should be spread out. 

6. Imperfect varieties should have perfect varieties near them. 



7. Treatment of vines 



Make an outline for the raspberry. 



REFERENCES 

The A B C of Strawberry Culture, Terry and Root. 

Bush Fruits, Card. 

Strawberry Culturist, Fuller. 

Successful Fruit Culture, Maynard. 

The Small Fruit Culturist, Fuller. 

The Fruit Garden, Barry. 

Grape Culturist, Fuller. 

Systematic Pomology, Waugh. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 



FORESTRY 149 



CHAPTER XVII 

FORESTRY 

Value of the Forests — The forest Is a great factor In 
the development of our country. It provides man with 
building material and fuel; It adds humus to the soil by 
supplying vegetable matter; It purifies the atmosphere; 
it serves as a windbreak and tempers the climate; It acts 
as a sponge for holding water, which drains off gradually, 
thus supplying streams with water In times of drouth 
and preventing disastrous floods. 

Destruction of Forests — Careless methods of lumbering 
and forest fires are responsible for the vanishing forests. 
It is common to see a forest completely spoiled in one 
cutting. Not only Is the young growth destroyed, but 
the tops of the trees and the limbs are left on the ground 
to furnish food for fires. The annual loss of forests due 
to fires amounts to millions of dollars. Forest fires are 
generally the result of carelessness. They are frequently 
caused by allowing fires to run while clearing land. 
Sometimes they are the result of camp fires. Sometimes 
a spark from a hunter's pipe, or from a locomotive, is 
sufficient to start them. High taxes on timber lands 
have forced many of the owners to cut all the timber 
without regard for the future growth. Of course, when 



150 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



the forest is gone the owner does not have to pay 
taxes on the timber, but sometimes the land is of little 
value after the timber has been removed. 

Preservation of Forests — "Every civilized country in 
the world, except China and Turkey, practices forestry. 




Fig. 102. Destructive Lumbering 

The countries of Europe and Asia, taken together, have 
passed through all the stages of forest history and applied 
all the known principles of forestry. They are rich in 
forest experience. The lessons of forestry were brought 
home to them by hard knocks. Their forest systems 



FORESTRY 151 



were built up gradually as the result of hardship. They 
did not first spin fine theories and then apply those 
theories by main force. On the contrary, they began 
by facing disagreeable facts. Every step of the way 
toward wise forest use, the world over, has been made 
at the sharp spur of want, suffering, or loss. As a result, 
the science of forestry is one of the most practical and 
most directly useful of all the sciences. It is serious 
work, undertaken as a measure of relief, and continued 
as a safeguard against future calamity. 

"Those countries which today manage their forests 
on sound principles have passed through four stages of 
forest experience. At first the forests were so abundant 
as to be in the way, and so they were either neglected 
or destroyed. Next, as settlements grew and the borders 
of the forests receded farther and farther from places 
where wood was needed and used, the question of local 
wood supplies had to be faced, and the forest was spared 
or even protected. Third, the increasing need of wood, 
together with better knowledge of the forest and its 
growth, led to the recognition of the forest as a crop, 
like agricultural crops, which must be harvested and 
which should therefore be made to grow again. In this 
stage silviculture, or the management of the forest so 
as to encourage its continued best growth, was born. 
Finally, as natural and industrial progress led to meas- 
ures for the general welfare, including a wiser and less 



152 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



wasteful use of natural resources, the forest was safe- 
guarded and controlled so as to yield a constant maximum 
produce year after year and from one generation to 
another. Systematic forestry, therefore, applied by the 




Fig. 103. A Tree With Too Much Side Light 

Notice how low the branches grow 

nation for the benefit of the people and practiced 
increasingly by far-sighted private citizens, comes when 
the last lesson in the school of forest experience is 
mastered. 



FORESTRY 153 



"The United States, then, in attacking the problem 
of how best to use its great forest resources, is not in 
the position of a pioneer in the field. It has the experi- 
ence of all the other countries to go upon. There is no 
need for years of experience with untried theories. The 
forest principles which hundreds of years of actual prac- 
tice have proved right are at its command. The only 
question is. How should these be modified or extended 
best to meet American conditions? In the management 
of the national forests the government is not working 
in the dark. Nor is it slavishly copying European 
countries. It is putting into practice, in America, and 
for Americans, principles tried and found correct, which 
will insure to all the people alike the fullest and best 
use of the forest resources."* 

The main principles of forestry are the same everywhere. 
Forestry does not aim to prevent trees being cut for 
lumber, but it does aim to prevent destructive lumbering. 
Correct methods of forestry will protect the forests and, 
at the same time, get the largest possible returns from 
the timber. If forests are to be preserved, the young 
growth must be saved, precautions must be taken in 
regard to setting fires, and various methods of taxation 
must be followed. For example, some states have laws 
by which any owner may have 40 acres or less of land 
exempt from taxation when it is planted to forest trees. 

*From Circular 140, Forest Service. 



154 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



It Is sometimes a good plan to cut the large trees in 
order to give the young ones a chance to grow; but it 
is necessary that the young growth should not be injured, 
and that the tops of the trees cut should not be left to 
furnish material for fires. 





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Fig. 104. A Group of Chestnut Sprouts 
a, before thinning ; b, ahei thinning 

The Farm Wood Lot — Every farmer who is fortunate 
enough to have a wood lot will be well repaid in the 
future if he keeps it in the best possible condition. Not 
only is it becoming difficult to secure good lumber, but 
wood is becoming scarce. If lumber is to be produced, 
attention should be given to quality. This means that 



FORESTRY 



55 



the number of trees to the acre must be adjusted so 
there will not be too much side light. Side light causes 
branches to develop along the trunks of the trees. Lum- 
ber from such trees will be full of knots. 




Fig. 105. Young Pine Trees On Cut-Over Lands 
These trees came up from seed and have not been injured by fire or by live stock 

Attention must be given to the young growth. Large 
crowned trees that take up too much room and hinder 
the young growth from getting necessary light can be 
removed with profit. When cutting wood, the undesir- 
able crooked trees and those that are dead should be 
removed in order to give more space to the choice trees. 



156 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Figure 104 (a) shows four choice trees and several unde- 
sirable ones. Figure 104 (b) shows the four choice trees 
after the undesirable ones have been removed, leaving 
more space for their development. If possible, trees 
should be cut when the snow is deep, because the young 
growth will be less likely to be injured. The brush 
should be piled and burned in wet weather, so it will not 
furnish food for fire in dry weather. In burning the 
brush piles care should be taken that the growing trees 
are not injured. 

It is not a good plan to seed the wood lot to grass for 
pasture. When the wood lot is pastured, the young 
growth is certain to be injured by the stock. 

When there are open spaces in the wood lot, it may 
be necessary to plant trees. In planting, small seedlings 
6 or 7 inches high should be selected. If the seedlings 
are much larger it is difficult to remove them from the 
ground without injuring the roots. The farmer should 
have some knowledge of the habits of growth of forest 
trees. The references which follow contain excellent 
information on this subject. 

REFERENCES 

Forest Planting, Jarchow. 

The Landscape Beautiful, Waugh. 

Our Native Trees and How to Know Them, Keeler. 

First Book of Forestry, Roth. 

Practical Forestry, Fuller. 

Landscape Gardening, Waugh. 



FARM STOCK 157 



CHAPTER XVIII 

FARM STOCK 

Care of the Stock — The successful farmer has learned 
that it pays to take good care of the live stock. Food, 
drink, shelter, and light for the stock need to be looked 
after. This requires constant study, considerable time, 
and more expense than it does to raise the ordinary farm 
crops. If this is the case, why does it pay to have stock 
on the farm? 

Why It Pays to Keep Stock — In a previous chapter 
we learned the following: 

1. That the selling of crops from the land removes 
plant food materials from the soil. 

2. That unless these plant foods are returned in the 
shape of fertilizers, the land finally becomes exhausted 
and it becomes impossible to raise good crops. 

3. That barnyard manure is usually the best and 
cheapest fertilizer. When animals are raised on the 
farm, most of the farm crops fed to them are returned 
to the soil in the shape of manure. The animal products, 
such as meat, butter, and eggs that the farmer sells do 
not take away much fertility from the farm and they 
bring in considerable money. 



158 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

We see, then, that there are two reasons why stock 
should be kept: 

First. The selling of animal products does not remove 
much soil fertility. 

Second. Stock farming pays financially. 

Breeds of Live Stock — It does not pay to keep "scrub" 
stock. Nothing but pure-bred stock should be kept. 
Each breed of live stock has certain characteristics 
which are common to it and different from those of 
other breeds. A great many breeds are known to the 
world, but we need to consider only a few of the most 
important ones. 



CATTLE 159 



CHAPTER XIX 

CATTLE 

Classes of Cattle — Cattle may be divided into two 
great classes or types. The dairy type includes the 
breeds most valuable for milk, butter, and cheese. The 
beef type includes the breeds especially valuable for beef. 

The Dairy Type — The form of a dairy cow presents 
a wedge-shaped appearance. This is true whether the 
cow is looked at from behind, from the side, or from 
above. In general appearance the dairy cow is loose and 
angular. The head of a dairy cow is small and the mouth 
large. The udder should be wide and full, extending 
well forward and high up in the back between the thighs. 
The milk veins should be large and extend forward, with 
numerous branches. 

Jersey Cattle— This popular breed of cattle originated 
on the island of Jersey near France. In order to keep 
the breed in its pure state, a law was once passed 
forbidding the bringing of other cattle to the island for 
breeding purposes. 

Jersey cattle are rather small. They always have a 
light-colored ring around the muzzle. The nose and the 
tongue may be either dark or light. Pure-bred Jerseys 
may be brown, light red, tan, yellow, or gray in color. 



160 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



With these colors more or less white may be found. It 
will be noticed that the color varies more in this breed 
of cattle than in any other. 

Guernsey Cattle — This breed was produced on the 
island of Guernsey, where it has been the policy of the 
people to exclude all cattle of foreign breeds. The 




Fig. 106. Dairy Type (Guernsey Cow) 

animals resemble the Jerseys to a considerable extent, 
and it is thought that the two breeds descended from 
the same parent stock. They are larger than the 
Jerseys and vary less in color. There are large patches 
of white on the legs and on the underside of the body. 



CATTLE 



61 



There is a small light-colored ring around the muzzle. 
Guernsey cattle give a good supply of rich milk. 

Ayrshire Cattle are natives of the county of Ayr in 
southwestern Scotland. They are good cows for butter 
and cheese. While their milk is not exceptionally rich, 
it is above the average. The color of Ayrshire cattle is 




Fig. 107. Ayrshire Co\ 



The 



some shade of red or brown, with white patches, 
muzzle may be either dark or light 

If you will examine a map of the southwestern part 
of Scotland, you will see that the surface of the country 
is broken and hilly. For this reason the cattle had to 



162 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



travel long distances in order to satisfy their hunger; 
therefore they became a hardy breed. Ayrshire cattle 
thrive well on scanty pasture and coarse feed. 

Holstein-Friesian Cattle — These large cattle, which 
originated in Holland, are sometimes called Dutch cattle, 
or simply Holstein cattle. They are black-and-white. 




Fig. 108. Holstein Cow 

They give a large quantity of milk, which is not as rich 
as that of most other breeds. 

Other Breeds — Brown Swiss, Devon, Dutch Belted, 
Polled Durham, Red Poll, and Shorthorn are the names 
of some other breeds valuable for milk. 

The Beef Type — The beef animal should not be angular 
like the dairy type. The body of the beef animal is 



CATTLE 



163 



well rounded and compact. The back is broad. It has 
been suggested that the general shape of a beef animal 
resembles that of a brick set on edge. A good beef 
animal must lay on flesh rapidly. 

Good and Bad Feeders — While some breeds are espe- 
cially valuable for beef, there are found among all breeds 




Fig. 109. Beef Type (Hereford) 

certain cattle which do not take on flesh properly. Such 
cattle are said to be **bad feeders." Cattle that take 
on flesh rapidly are said to be "good feeders." It is 
difficult to describe which calves will prove to be good 
feeders and which will be bad feeders; but when 
the difference is as marked as that shown in Figures 



64 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 110. A Good Feeder 



1 1 and 111, good and 
bad feeders can be eas- 
ily distinguished. 

Shorthorn Cattle — 

This important breed 
of cattle originated in 
Durham County, Eng- 
land. For this reason 
it is sometimes called 
the Durham breed. In color, Shorthorn cattle may be 
either red or white, or a mixture of the two colors. These 
cattle are large and of a quiet disposition. The breed 
will do well on coarse fodders. Although Shorthorns are 
prized highly for beef, they are valuable as milk producers. 

Polled Durham — This breed originated in America. 
It was developed from the Shorthorn breed, which they 
resemble, except that they do not have horns. 

Hereford Cattle — 

This breed of cattle 
originated in Hereford 
County, England. In 
color, the animals are 
red of various shades. 
The face, breast, under 
part of the body, legs, 
and a strip along the 




Fig. 111. A Bad Feeder 



CATTLE 165 



back are white. These animals are hardy and can with- 
stand a cold climate. They are distinctly a beef breed. 

Galloway Cattle originated in a district of that name 
in Scotland. It is a hornless, black breed. The hair 
is long, fine, and thick, and for that reason the hides 
make good robes. These cattle are able to withstand 
great extremes of temperature. They are raised to a 
considerable extent in the western part of the United 
States. 

Aberdeen Angus cattle probably originated from the 
Galloway. They are the same color, but are a little 




Fig. 112. Galloway Bull 



166 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

larger. They are well adapted to indoor feeding as well 
as to pasturing. 

Devon Cattle — Devon County, England, is the home 
of this breed. The Devon cattle were originally milk 
producers, but at present are valued chiefly for their 
beef. They are red, and do well on light pastures 

Red Polled cattle originated in the counties of Norfolk 
and Suffolk, in England. They resemble the Devon, 
but are more popular in this country. 

REFERENCES 

The Study of Breeds, Shaw. 

Principles of Breeding, Davenport. 

Farm Stock, Burkett. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Animal Breeding, Shaw. 

Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. 

American Cattle, Allen. 

The Wild Cattle of Great Britain, Storer. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 

The Farmer's Veterinarian, Burkett. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



167 



CHAPTER XX 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

Composition of Milk— The largest portion of milk is 
water, in which fat globules are floating. Figure 113 
shows a drop of milk under a microscope. You can find 
some of the other things that are in milk by performing 
the following experiments: 

1. Put some milk in a tumbler and pour on some 
weak acid or vinegar. Shake the tumbler. The milk 
curdles. It is from this curd 
that cheese is made. The 
curdled portion is called case- 
in, which is a form of proteid. 
Heat some milk and notice 
the scum or film that forms 
upon it. This scum is another 
form of proteid called albumen. 

2. Test some milk for 
sugar. Use the same test as 
you did for testing the sugar 
in seeds. Milk sugar is not as sweet as ordinary sugar. 
It is used a great deal for coating pills. 

3. If milk is evaporated in a clean dish and then 
burned some mineral matter will be left. 




Fig. 1 1 3. How Milk Looks Under 
a Microscope 



168 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



We see, then, that milk Is composed of water, fat, 
casein, albumen, sugar, and mineral matter. The average 
per cent, of each of these is given in Figure 114. 

Quality of Milk — Whether a dairy cow is profitable 
or not depends as much upon the quality of the milk 
as it does upon the quantity. The quantity of butter 
that can be made from a certain amount of milk depends 
upon the amount of fat present. The richness of milk 
is also important in cheese making. The amount of 
casein in the milk increases with the amount of fat, and 
the fat in the milk makes the cheese much richer than 
it would be if none were present. 

Pure Milk — It is important that pure milk 
be used in making butter or cheese. In order 
that the milk may be pure it is necessary for 
the farmer to know how it becomes contami- 
nated and how to prevent contamination. 

How Milk Becomes Contaminated — Milk 

often becomes contaminated 
because the milker is care- 
less, because the utensils used 
are unclean, or because it is 
allowed to stand in the barn 
for some time. Milk carries 
diseases readily. Scarlet fever 
and diphtheria are carried in 



--mter-^ 



^Min eral Matter .7% 
Casein and 
Albumen 3.3% 

Fat 4% 
Sugar 5% 



Fig. 114. Diagram Showing Average 
Composition of Milk 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



169 



milk. Many instances are on record where typhoid fever 
has been carried in milk because the milking utensils 
were washed in water containing typhoid bacteria. Milk 
from diseased cattle should not be used. The farmer 




Fig. 115. A Sanitary Cow Stable 

should test every cow that he has as well as all that he 
adds to the herd in order to be sure that no animal has 
tuberculosis. 

Preventing Contamination of Milk — In order that the 
milk may be in good condition the following should be 
observed: 

1. The cows should be free from disease. 

2. The feed should be free from substances which 



170 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



cause odors or flavors to appear in the milk. Cows 
should also have pure water to drink. 

3. The importance of cleanliness in the dairy cannot 
be overstated. The cows, yards, barns, stalls, utensils, 
and clothes of the milker should be clean-. 

4. The milker should be free from disease. 

5. The stable should be light and well ventilated. 




Fig. 116. A Filthy Cow Stable 

It is impossible to produce pure milk under such conditions as these 

Bacteria — Bacteria have a great deal to do with the 
milk supply. Although bacteria are so small that 
millions of them may be contained in a single drop of 
milk, they multiply very rapidly. Many people think 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 

all bacteria are harmful, but some are not only harmless 
but very helpful. Those said to cause diseases are 
examples of the harmful kind. A certain kind of bacteria 
gives butter its flavor. The souring of milk is due to 
bacteria which work on the milk sugar and turn it to 
acid. We need to use the utmost care and cleanliness 
in order to keep the harmful bacteria out of the milk. 

Pasteurization of Milk — It has been found possible to 
destroy nearly all harmful bacteria in milk by pasteuri- 
zation. This is done by keeping the milk for twenty or 
thirty minutes at a temperature of 150 degrees Fahren- 
heit, after which it should be cooled rapidly to a tem- 
perature of 50 degrees or less. 

Many dairymen do not heat the milk to a temperature 
high enough to kill the harmful bacteria, or keep the 
milk heated long enough. Such a method of pasteuri- 
zation is worse than useless, because it merely keeps the 
milk from souring by killing the lactic acid bacteria, 
while the harmful kind may live in great numbers. This 
method of cheating the unsuspecting customer into buying 
unhealthful milk cannot be too strongly condemned. 

Milk Products — Some milk products are cream, butter, 
cheese, condensed milk, concentrated milk, evaporated 
cream, and milk powder. 

Condensed Milk has been on the market for over 50 
years. Condensed milk factories require milk that is 



172 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



produced under the best conditions possible; therefore 
they have done much to encourage sanitary milk pro- 
duction by enforcing certain rules 
^- » which the dairyman must follow 

if he is to sell milk to the con- 
2, ^'. ^ b densing factory. There are two 

*"' " kinds of condensed milk. Both 

Fig. 1 1 7. How Bacteria Grow i • i ill 

, , , . ,.^ kmds are produced by evapora- 

The growth of bactena at different 

temperaturesduring 24 hours is shown tion. In onc kind a krgc amount 

here. Each dot represents a single f •1111 11 

bacterium, a, at 50 degrees, seven ; Ot SUgar IS addcd tO kCCp thC baC- 
and h, a. 70 degrees. 700 bacteria. ^^^J^ f ^^^ multiplying. Thc Othcr 

kind is unsweetened. It is sterilized by heat in order to 
prevent the growth of bacteria. Both kinds are placed 
in sealed cans. 

Concentrated Milk — In manufacturing concentrated 
milk the skim milk is evaporated, and the proper amount 
of pasteurized cream is added. When concentrated 
milk is used, it is diluted with water. 

Evaporated Cream is a mixture of milk and cream 
evaporated to less than one-half of its original volume. 
It is sterilized by heat and sealed in cans. 

Milk Powder — There are several methods of reducing 
milk to a dry form. Powdered milk keeps well, but 
when it is dissolved the product does not act like fresh 
milk. Powdered milk has its uses, but it is considered 
inferior to milk in a liquid form. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



173 



Butter-Making — Although creameries make most of 
the butter used in this country, there are still some 
farmers who prefer to make their own butter. There 
is a good demand for first class homemade butter, and 
frequently a high price is paid for it. The following are 
the steps used by creameries in the manufacture of butter : 

1. The milk is tested for fat. 

2. The cream is ripened. 

3. The cream is churned 

4. The butter is washed, salted and worked. 

5. The butter is packed. 

How Milk Is Tested for Fat — The Babcock test, which 
was discovered by Dr. Babcock of Madison, Wisconsin, 
is the one used in 
the United States. 
The test is made as 
follows: By use of 
a pipette, 1 7.6 cubic 
centimeters of milk 
are put into a test 
bottle. Then sul- 
phuric acid of the 
correct strength is 
measured in a grad- 
uate, and 1 7.5 cubic centimeters of it carefully poured down 
the side of the test bottle into the milk. The acid and the 
milk should be thoroughly mixed by being gently shaken 




A Cheap Pasteurizing Apparatus 



174 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



with a rotary motion. The mixture becomes hot and has a 
dark color. The bottles are put in the tester, and the 
machine is rapidly rotated for five or six minutes. Enough 
warm water is then added to each bottle to bring the fat 
up into the neck. The bottles are whirled again for two 
or three minutes, after which they are removed. The 
per cent of fat can be read on the neck of the bottle. 

Separating the Cream — Cream was formerly separated 
from the milk by the gravity system. As the particles 
of fat are lighter than the rest of the milk particles, if 
the milk is allowed to stand for a time, the heavier par- 
ticles will sink 




and force the 
particles of fat 
to the surface, 
when the cream 
can be skimmed 
from the top. 
The cream sepa- 
rator has almost 
entirely replaced 
the gravity sys- 
tem because it 
saves time and 
removes a larger per cent, of butter fat. Various separa- 
tors are on the market, but all work on the same principle. 
A rapidly revolving bowl throws the heavier particles of 



Fig. 119. An Up-to-Date Creamery 

This creamery is built entirely of stone. The inside is finished in 
cement. There is nothing to decay and produce odors. The whole 
interior is arranged so that it can be washed with running water. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 175 

milk outward, leaving the lighter particles of fat in the 
center of the bowl. By means of a mechanical arrange- 
ment the fat particles are drawn off through one pipe 
and the skimmed milk through another. 

Ripening of the Cream — The primary purpose of 
ripening the cream is to give flavor to the butter. It is 
also thought that if the cream is allowed to ripen or sour 
it will churn easier and produce more butter than if it 
is churned sweet. It has been found that the ripening 
of cream is due to bacteria. Sometimes a starter of 
sour milk or cream containing these bacteria is added 
to the fresh cream to hasten the ripening process. Such 
starters, however, are apt to contain various types of 
bacteria, and may not give good results. On this account 
commercial cultures or starters are prepared in which 
the bacteria desired for the ripening process are cultivated, 
while the other types are excluded as much as possible. 
These cultures give good satisfaction. 

Coloring — If the butter is to be colored, the coloring 
matter should be added to the cream before starting to 
churn. The standard coloring matter prepared from the 
pulp surrounding the annatto seed is harmless. 

Churning — A great many kinds of churns are in use. 
The best kinds are those without inside fixtures, such 
as the barrel, or simple swinging churn. The motion 
in churning should be such that the cream will fall against 



176 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 120. Babcock Testing Apparatus 
1 and 7, Babcock testers; 2, acid dipper; 3, acid measure ; 4. pipette; 5 and 6, test bottles 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



177 



the ends and sides of the churn with as much force as 
possible. If a barrel churn is used it should not be more 
than half full of cream. To secure good results the 
cream should be at the proper temperature. So many 
conditions enter into the- problem that no definite tem- 
perature can be given. A 
temperature between 55 and 
65 degrees Fahrenheit is 
generally considered best. 
Churning should not be con- 
tinued until the butter is in 
a solid mass, but should be 
stopped as soon as the but- 
ter gathers in small clusters 
This makes it much easier 
to get rid of the buttermilk, 
drained off, and the butter 
changes of water. After this, salt should be added, 
preferably while the granules of butter are in the churn, 
and the butter should be mixed with the salt by rocking 
the churn. Before the butter is worked it is a good plan 
to let it stand in the churn for half an hour until the 
salt is dissolved. 

Working the Butter — After the salt is dissolved the 
butter should be worked by pressure. A convenient 
apparatus is the lever butter worker. The working 
should cease as soon as the butter is thoroughly mixed. 




Fig. 121. Barrel Churn 

The buttermilk should be 
rinsed with two or three 



178 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



and the excessive moisture removed. If the working is 
continued too long, the butter will have a greasy texture. 
Packing — To bring a good price the butter should be 
made attractive by being molded and wrapped in parch- 
ment paper, or in suitable cartons. Besides using this 
method of packing, creameries pack large amounts of 

butter in tubs made 
expressly for the pur- 
pose. 

Cheese Making — 
There are over 200 
varieties of cheese 
made in the world. 
All of them can be 
placed under two 
divisions; viz., hard 
cheeses, and soft 
cheeses. Under the 
first mentioned we 

Fig. 122. Butter Worker J^^^^ Cheddar, SwisS, 

and Edam cheeses; under the second, Camembert, Brie, 
Roquefort, Limburger, Gorgonzola, and Stilton. Bacteria, 
molds, and enzymes or ferments enter into cheese making. 
There is still a great deal to learn in regard to the work 
that each of these does in the ripening process of various 
cheeses. A great deal of experience is necessary in order 
to make cheese successfully. 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 179 

Cheddar Cheese — If the milk to be used for the making 
of the cheese is not sufficiently ripe, a starter is used. 
When the milk is ripe, it is slowly heated to a tempera- 
ture of about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Rennet diluted 
with water is mixed with the milk in order to cause the 
casein to coagulate. The rennet acts in somewhat the 
same way as the vinegar which you added to the milk 
when performing the experiment mentioned at the 
beginning of this chapter. After the rennet is added 
the milk gradually thickens until it is a solid mass. 
The curd is cut in small cubes before it begins to separate 
from the whey. 

After the curd is cut it is allowed to sink. The whole 
mass is then gently agitated to keep the particles of 
curd from sticking together and to aid in the separation 
of the whey. Next, heat is applied very gradually until 
a temperature of 98 degrees Fahrenheit is reached. The 
curd must be covered with some whey until a sufficient 
amount of lactic acid is developed, after which the whey 
is removed and the particles of curd allowed to mat 
together. The matted curd is then cut in blocks, and 
the blocks are again cut into fine particles. Salt is 
mixed with the particles. 

The cheese is now covered with a bandage and placed 
in a press. After pressure has been applied for a little 
less than an hour, the cheese is removed, washed with 
hot water, turned, and replaced in the press for about 



180 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



twenty-four hours. After being removed from the press, 
the cheese is cured or ripened. This takes from one to 
three months. 

It is during the curing process that most of the flavors 
are developed. Sometimes, during the ripening period. 




Fig. 123. Worthless Camembert Cheese 

Showing porous texture produced by gas-forming bacteria 

harmful bacberia and yeasts produce gases which cause 
the cheese to become full of holes. The gases pro- 
duced are also apt to spoil the flavor of the cheese. 
In order to prevent gassy cheese, harmful bacteria 
and yeasts must be kept out of the product as far as 
possible. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



181 



The following test is sometimes used to ascertain if 
the milk to be used in cheese making contains gas-forming 
bacteria : 

A pint jar is filled half full of the milk to be tested, 
and is placed in a tub half full of water. The water must 
be warm enough to raise the temperature of the milk 
to 98 degrees Fahrenheit. When the temperature of the 
milk reaches this point, 10 drops of rennet extract are 
added. The jar should be left undisturbed until the 
milk curdles. The curd should then be stirred with a 
case knife to cause it to separate from the whey. As 
the curd settles, the whey should be poured off from time 
to time until the curd particles 
collect in a solid mass. The texture 
of the curd can be seen by cutting 
through it. 

Camembert Cheese — The chief 
difference between hard and soft 
cheeses is that a larger amount of 
water is left in the soft varieties. 
The bacteria which cause the sour- 
ing of milk continue to grow during 
the making of Camembert cheese. 
This growth is important. Mold 
appears upon the surface of this 
cheese. The mold is at first a pure 
white, but later becomes gray. The 




Fig. 124. Penicillium Cam- 
emberti 
A mold that grows on Camem- 
bert cheese. The common form of 
branching and spore production is 
shown in a, b, and c. Germinating 
spores are shown in d. 



182 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

mold aids the ripening of the cheese by producing an 
enzyme or ferment. The ferment at first acts upon the 
surface of the cheese, but finally affects the whole 
interior as well. 

Roquefort Cheese is made almost entirely in France, 
where there are numerous caves of just the right tempera- 
ture to favor the ripening process. Private companies 
have secured control of the Roquefort cheese industry 
by buying these caves. 

The ripening of Roquefort cheese is due to the growth 
of a blue mold. The mold grows throughout the entire 
cheese. It is first grown on bread. The bread is then 
ground up and the powder placed in layers throughout 
the curd. The spores then grow and produce mold in 
the cheese. 

Limburger Cheese — It is thought that this cheese 
depends entirely upon the growth of bacteria for its 
ripening. 

Dutch Cheese, or cottage cheese, is not subjected to 
a ripening process. It is made by heating curdled butter- 
milk or sour milk. The whey is then removed and the 
cheese used in a fresh state. This cheese may be cured 
like other cheeses, but the curing process changes its 
character. 

Whey Cheese is another homemade cheese which is 
not cured. In making this cheese whey is slowly boiled 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 

down until a brown mass remains. This toothsome 
cheese is not much used except by Scandinavians. 

EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 

1. Test milk for proteids and for sugar. Use the 
test given on page 74. 

2. Milk testing 3 per cent, fat is said to give a low 
test, and milk testing 5 per cent, a high one. Find out 
what each cow on your farm tests. Find the average 
test of the herd. Is the test low, medium, or high? 
Bring your list to class and compare with the lists of 
other pupils. 

3. Experiment to show the effect of unclean milk 
dishes on the souring of milk: Let some milk sour in 
two dishes. Then wash one of the dishes and scald it 
thoroughly. Merely empty the sour milk out of the 
other one without washing it. Now put some milk in 
both dishes and let it stand. Examine these from time 
to time and notice which sours first. Judging from this 
experiment, what would be the result of not properly 
washing and scalding other milk dishes? 

4. Experiment in pasteurizing milk: Heat some milk 
to a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, then place 
the milk in cold water until it cools to a temperature of 
50 degrees. Put some of this milk in a clean bottle, and 
put some milk that has not been pasteurized in another 
bottle. Cork the bottles tightly and set them side by 



184 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

side. Examine them every day. Compare the keeping 
qualities of the milk in the two bottles. 

5. Visit a creamery and observe how the milk is 
tested, and how the butter is made. 

6. Place some bread under a tumbler and keep it 
moistened until mold forms upon it. Examine the mold 
with a magnifying glass. Shake some spores from the 
bread-mold upon cheese, and keep the cheese slightly 
moistened. Do the spores produce mold upon the cheese? 

7. Get samples of the different kinds of cheese. 
Examine them with reference to appearance, odor, and 
taste. 

Make an outline of this chapter, based upon the 

following : 

OUTLINE OF MILK PRODUCTS 

(1) Water. 

(2) , 

(3) Casein. 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 



I. Composition of milk 



2. Uses of milk 



3. Diseases carried by milk 



4. How to get good milk. 

(1) The cow must be free from disease. 

(2) 

(3) 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



185 



5. Milk products 



(1) Condensed milk. 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) ,- 

(5) Butter-making. 

(a) Steps in butter-making- 



^, ((a)Kindsn^)^^f^,^- 

L(6) Cheese ] ^ ^ . 1(2) Soft. 

((b) Ripening of cheese due to 

(1) Bacteria. 

(2) 

(3) 



REFERENCES 

First Lessons in Dairying, Van Norman. 

Practical Dairy Bacteriology, Conn. 

The Science and Practice of Cheese Making, Van Slyke and Publow. 

Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products, Van Slyke. 

The Business of Dairying, Lane. 

Questions and Answers in Milk and Milk Testing, Publow 

Questions and Answers in Butter Making, Publow. 

Bacteria in Milk, Conn. 



186 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXI 

FEEDING THE STOCK 

Classes of Foods — The various kinds of foods needed 
by animals are: Water, mineral matter, protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fats. 

Water — As all animals require water, it is important 
that the stock be supplied with an abundance. 

Mineral Matter is used to build up the bones and the 
teeth. As a general rule, rations consisting of a variety 
of feeds contain sufficient mineral matter to supply the 
demands of the body. 

Protein is the only constituent of feeds that contains 
nitrogen. Protein feeds are sometimes called "flesh 
formers" because they build up the lean flesh and repair 
the waste of the body. Protein material also forms a 
large part of the blood, skin, nerves, hair, horn, wool, 
and the casein and albumen of milk. When the 
carbohydrates and fats in feeds are not sufficient to 
produce heat and energy, the body may call upon the 
proteins for those purposes. The farmer must give 
considerable attention to supplying the stock with this 
necessary class of feeds. Usually the feeds containing a 
large proportion of protein are the most expensive. 



FEEDING THE STOCK 187 

Carbohydrates and Fats — Carbohydrates Include 
starches and sugars. They are used to furnish heat, 
and power of motion (energy) for the body, or are used 
to make fat. Fats are used for the same purpose as 
carbohydrates. One pound of fat, however, is 2.4 times* 
as valuable for producing heat and energy as one pound 
of carbohydrates. This fact is considered in the tables 
in this book. To make the tables as simple as possible 
the carbohydrates and the fats are combined. 

Feeding the Stock — In feeding the stock the following 
things should be kept in mind: 

1 . There should be regular times for feeding each day. 

2. The stock should be given the proper amount of 
digestible feed. 

3. To supply the stock with the needed amount of 
digestible matter, it is necessary that definite quantities 
each of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates and fat be 
fed each day. 

4. Protein, carbohydrates and fats must be rightly 
proportioned in the feed, otherwise there will be a waste 
of feed. A ration in which the proportion is not correct 
is said to be "badly balanced." A ration containing the 
protein, carbohydrates and fats in proper proportion is 
said to be "well balanced." Such a ration is known as 
a "balanced ration." 



*Sometimes 2.25 is used instead of 2.4. 



188 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Feeding Standards and Balanced Rations — Balanced 
rations differ according to the animals to be fed. As 
a result of experiments in feeding, tables have been 
prepared which are accurate enough to serve as guides 
in feeding. Such a table for cattle is given at the end of 
this chapter. 

Let us make a balanced ration for a dairy cow. Turn- 
ing to the table of feeding standards (Table A), we 
find that a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 
16H pounds of milk, needs daily about 27 pounds of 
dry matter. She needs 2 pounds of digestible protein, 
and 12 pounds of carbohydrates and fats. We also 
notice that the nutritive ratio is 1 to 6. This means that 
six times as many pounds of carbohydrates and fats as 
protein should be fed. Let us place these amounts at 
the head of our table as shown below. Suppose that 
we have red clover hay, corn fodder, and wheat bran to 
feed. We find the amount of dry matter, protein, carbo- 

TABLE OF BALANCED RATION FOR DAIRY COW (PER 1,000 POUNDS 
LIVE WEIGHT) 



FEED USED 


Pounds of Dry 
Matter 


Pounds of 
Protein 


Pounds of 
Carbohydrates 
and (Fate X 2.4) 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Required by standard 


27. 


2. 


12. 


1:6 


Red clover hay (15 lbs.) 
Corn fodder (10 lbs.) 
Wheat bran (6 lbs.) 


12.6 
5.8 
5.3 


1.02 
0.25 
0.73 


5.98 

3.75 

2.74 




Total 


23.7 


2.00 


12.47 


1 :6.23 







FEEDING THE STOCK 189 

hydrates and fats in each of these as given in the table 
of feeding standards (Table I) in the Appendix. To get 
the correct amount of each feeding stuff is a matter of 
guessing to a certain extent. We have to estimate the 
number of pounds of each until we get the right amount. 
Suppose that in making a trial ration we decide to try 
15 pounds of clover hay, 10 pounds of corn fodder, and 
6 pounds of wheat bran. By looking at the table 
(Table I) in the back of the book, we find: 

1. That 15 pounds of clover hay contain 12.6 pounds 
of dry matter, and the following digestible nutrients: 

Protein, 1.02 pounds. 

Carbohydrates and fats, 5.98 pounds. 

2. From the same table we find the materials for 10 
pounds of corn fodder to be as follows: 

Dry matter, 5.8 pounds. 

Protein, 0.25 pounds. 

Carbohydrates and fats, 3.75 pounds. 

3. For 6 pounds of wheat bran, we find: 

Dry matter, 5.3 pounds. 

Protein, 0.73. 

Carbohydrates and fats, 2.74. 

We can now arrange these figures in a convenient table. 
By adding the various materials we get this result: 
Dry matter, 23.7 pounds. 
Protein, 2.0 pounds. 
Carbohydrates and fats, 12.47 pounds. 



190 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

The dry matter is 3.3 pounds less than the amount 
required by the standard, but four or five pounds too 
little or too much of dry matter is of little importance. 
The protein should always be nearly the same as that 
required by the standard, but it may vary a little. In 
the ration we have just made the protein is exact. Usually 
it will not be convenient to get so close a result. In 
our ration we have 0.47 of a pound too much of carbo- 
hydrates and fats, but that is near enough. It should 
be remembered that balanced rations which are 
approximately correct are all that are necessary in 
feeding. 

Cost of Feeding — The great problem of the farmer is 
to use those feeds that will produce the best results with 
the least expense. It is not always the cheapest feeds 
that will do this. Frequently it is best to sell some 
feeds having a wide ratio and buy others having a narrow 
ratio.* 

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs — Some feeds have 
more manurial value than others. This should be con- 
sidered in making a profitable ration and in determining 
what feeds to sell and what feeds to buy. (See Table 
III at the back of the book.) 



*The terms "medium ratio," "wide ratio," and "narrow ratio" are used to 
indicate the relation between the amount of protein, and the amount of carbo- 
hydrates and fats. For example, in feeding a dairy cow, 1 to 6 would be a medium 
ratio, 1 to 8 would be a wide ratio, and 1 to 5 would be a narrow ratio. 



FEEDING THE STOCK 



191 



EXERCISES 

1. The balanced ration given on page 188 is for a 
dairy cow weighing 1 ,000 pounds. From the same table 
make a ration for a cow weighing 900 pounds. 

2. Make a ration of corn, red clover hay, corn stover, 
wheat bran, and linseed meal for fattening cattle (per 
1 ,000 pounds live weight) in the third or finishing period 
by filling in the following table: 

BALANCED RATION FOR FATTENING CATTLE (PER 1,000 POUNDS) 



FEED USED 


Dry 
Matter 


Protein 


Carbohydrates and 
(Fats X 2.4) 


*Required by standard 


26. 


2.7 


16.7 


Corn (10 lbs.) 
Red clover hay (10 lbs.) 
Corn stover (5 lbs.) 
Wheat bran (5 lbs.) 
Linseed meal, N. P. (2 lbs.) 








Total ___ 













3. Make a ration for fattening cattle in the third 
period. Use 10 pounds of corn, 5 pounds of barley 
screenings, 10 pounds of alsike clover, and 2 pounds of 
linseed meal. Arrange these in a table similar to the 
one in Exercise 2. Do you think this ration is exact 
enough for practical purposes? 

4. Make a ration for growing dairy cattle 6 to 12 
months old (weight 500 pounds). Include in this 



*From Table A. 



192 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



ration red clover hay, wheat bran, and linseed meal. 

5. Make a ration for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 
pounds, using such feeds as are commonly used on your 
farm. 

TABLE A. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR CATTLE* 

(A day and per 1000 pounds live weight, except where otherwise stated) 







Uve 

Weight 
(pounds) 


Dry 
Matter 
(pounds) 


Digestible 


Nutrients 




ANIMAL 


Protein 
(pounds) 


Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fatsx2.4) 


Nutritive 
Ratio 










(pounds) 




(1) Oxen, at rest in stall 


1000 


18 


0.7 


8.2 


1:11.8 


(2) Fattening Cattle 












First, or preliminary period 


1000 


30 


2.5 


16.2 


1: 6.5 


Second, or main period 


1000 


30 


3.0 


16.2 


1: 5.4 


Third, or finishing period 


1000 


26 


2.7 


16.7 


1: 6.2 


(3) Milch Cows 












Yielding 10 lbs. milk daily 


1000 


25 


1.6 


10.7 


1: 6.7 


Yielding 16.5 lbs. milk daily 


1000 


27 


2.0 


12.0 


1: 6.0 


Yielding 22. lbs. milk daily 


1000 


29 


2.5 


14.2 


1: 5.7 


Yielding 27.5 lbs. milk daily 


1000 


32 


3.3 


14.8 


1: 4.5 


Age. Months 














- 2-3 


150 


3.5 


0.6 


2.7 


1: 4.5 


(4) Growing Cattle 

(Dairy breeds) 


3-6 
6-12 
12-18 


300 
500 
700 


7.2 
13.5 
18.2 


0.9 
1.0 
1.26 


4.56 

6.8 

9.43 


1: 5.1 
1: 6.8 
1: 7.5 




L 18-24 


900 


23.4 


1.35 


11.45 


1: 8.5 


r 2-3 


160 


3.7 


0.67 


2.84 


1: 4.2 


(5) Growing Cattle 

(Beef breeds)" 


3-6 
6-12 


330 
550 


7.9 
13.8 


1.16 
1.37 


5.41 
8.18 


1: 4.7 
1: 6.0 


12-18 


750 


18.0 


1.5 


10.20 


1: 6.8 




1 18-24 


950 


22.8 


1.71 


12.31 


1: 7.2 



*Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 



FEEDING THE STOCK 193 

6. Place the tables you have made in your notebook 
for future reference. 

REFERENCES 

Feeding Farm Animals, Shaw. 

Feeds and Feeding, Henry. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Principles of Animal Nutrition, Armsby. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 

The Management and Feeding of Cattle, Shaw. 



194 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXII 

HORSES 

Origin of the Horse — It is believed that all breeds of 
horses have descended from the same parent stock. The 
difference in surroundings are believed to be largely the 
cause of the variations of the types of horses. For example, 
where there was plenty of feed and a mild climate the 
early horses developed large bodies and heavy limbs; 
but where the feed was scarce and the climate cold a 
smaller type of horse was developed. 

Breeds — The various breeds may be classed as draft 
horses, roadster breeds, coach horses, and ponies. 

DRAFT HORSES 

The draft horse is large and heavy. The back is broad 
and the legs short. In general, the depth of the body 
should be about the same as the length of the leg. The 
draft horse should have upright shoulders in order to 
provide a proper support for the collar. Percheron, 
French Draft, Clydesdale, English Shire, Belgian Draft, 
and Suffolk Punch horses are some of the breeds of draft 
horses. 

The Percheron was developed in the district of La 
Perche in France. A horse of this type is white, gray. 




Prize Percheron Stallion 



HORSES 



195 



black, or dark brown, with an intelligent head, rather 
small ears and eyes, strong shoulders and chest, a plump 
body, short legs, and well-shaped hoofs. It makes a 
good farm horse, because it is gentle, strong, and active. 

The French Draft — This breed of horse is similar 
to the Percheron. 



- . -.J^ 


» 




.,-«>--. 


r~~r^ ~ ~ , , .,,.,-.,,, .7^ 








'f'' 


--*--?2^ 




n 




g^^^u —yi 


- 



Fig. 125. Percheron Stallion 

The Clydesdale horse is a native of Scotland. Horses 
of this type are black, bay, or chestnut, with white 
markings. They have long hair on the lower part of 
the legs. The neck is arched and muscular, the head 
is generally of good shape, and the shoulders are sloping. 
The Clydesdale is^ a popular farm horse in this country. 



196 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The English Shire horse was developed in England. 
He is more massive than the Clydesdale, but lacks the 
quality of the latter breed. 




Fig. 126. Belgian Draft Stallion 



The Belgian Draft Horse was developed in Belgium. 
The older types were fat, unattractive, and not good 
for hard work. They have been greatly improved, how- 



HORSES 



197 



ever, and many have been sold in recent years at the 
Chicago market. Horses of this breed are easy keepers. 
There seem to be no characteristic colors for this breed; 
red and blue roans are common, also browns and bays. 




Fig. 127. Suffolk Stallion 

The Suffolk Punch — A horse of this type has a long 
body, and short, light-boned legs. Horses belonging to 
this breed are a chestnut or sorrel. They are easy keepers. 
Few of them are used in this country. 
ROADSTER BREEDS 

Horses of this type are of light weight, with long legs, 
heads set gracefully on the long, slender neck, and shoul- 





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ft ju^P ""*'* <l 


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t ml ^^JBLj^Mf-^^Bf^ 


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_"4^e\ 


M|^yj' .*= ' 


ff^^^^^f^^'- 


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Vf^H '• 


■lS^»^ 


ImI''- 



HORSES 199 



ders sloping. Breeders have spent years in developing 
roadster breeds so they would be valuable for speed. 
The chief breeds are the Thoroughbred, the American 
Trotter, and the American Saddle horse. 

The Thoroughbred— The name 'Thoroughbred" belongs 
to the English breed of running horse. The Thoroughbred 
horse has great endurance as well as speed. The common 
colors are brown, chestnut, and bay. 

The American Trotter has been bred for speed qual- 
ities, and now holds the fastest records for all distances. 
The Hambletonians, Mambrinos, Clays, and Morgans 
belong to this class. 

The American Saddle Horse — The business of devel- 
oping saddle horses has been given careful attention In 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Missouri, and to a less 
extent in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and other states. As 
a result a good breed of saddle horse has been developed. 

COACH HORSES 

Coach horses must be able to draw a heavy carriage 
at a good rate of speed. In size and form they are between 
speed horses and draft horses. The chief breeds are the 
French Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the German Coach, 
and the Hackney. 

The French Coach Horse originated In France. Horses 
of this type are strong and graceful. They are brown, 
black, or bay in color. 



200 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

The Cleveland Bay, developed in England, is a power- 
ful animal, a good coach horse, and is heavy enough 
for general farm work. Its mane and tail are black. 

The German Coach horses are suited to the same classes 
of work as the Cleveland Bay. They are usually black, 
bay, chestnut, or brown. 

The Hackney horse has long been known as the "gen- 
tleman's horse" in England. His perfect outline and 
high "knee action" when traveling make him a very 
stylish carriage horse 

PONIES 

Shetland ponies originated in the Shetland Islands near 
Scotland. They are very small, and are valuable chiefly 
for children's use. 

The Indian ponies in the northern part of the United 
States, and the Mustangs in the southern part are valuable 
as saddle horses. 

Welsh ponies are used in the United States to a slight 
extent for children to drive. 

CARE OF THE HORSE 

The horse is a noble, affectionate animal and requires 
careful treatment. Considerable attention must be given 
to feeding and to many other things necessary for his 
health and comfort. 

Feeding — The horse has a small stomach; therefore 
he should not be fed a large amount of food, but the food 



HORSES 



201 



must have the necessary amount of nutritious matter. 
A table showing the proper amount to feed is placed at 
the end of this chapter. Nearly all diseases of the diges- 
tive organs are the result of improper feeding. One of 
the most common causes of digestive disorders is feeding 
the horse too soon after a day's hard work. Sudden 
changes of diet are always dangerous. When it is nee- 




Fig. 129. Champion Hackney Stallion 

essary to change the food of the horse, it should be done 
gradually. As moldy or musty foods cause diseases of 
the digestive organs, they should never be given. The 
horse should be supplied with pure water, but a large 
quantity should not be given when the animal is warm. 
It is also thought by many people that it is better to 



202 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



water a horse before feeding than immediately afterward. 
Horses require regular meals just as people do. 

Shoeing — In order to be useful a horse must have 
sound feet. A large number of horses are injured every 
year by being improperly shod. 
Every owner should understand 
how horses should be shod, so he 
can insist on the blacksmith shoe- 
ing them properly. Horseshoeing 
is a profession and cannot be fully 
treated here. A few things might 
be mentioned: 

1 . A red-hot shoe should never 
be placed against the sole of a 
horse's hoof to see whether it fits. 
This burns up the oil in the 
horny part of the hoof, which then becomes brittle. 

2. The frog, or bars of the foot, should not be cut away. 

3. Not much of the outside of the hoof should be 
filed away around the shoe, as this weakens the foot. 
Make the shoe fit the foot, not the foot the shoe. 

Other Matters — Several little matters which often cause 
a great deal of discomfort and trouble to the horse on 
account of the carelessness or indifference of the owner 
might be mentioned here. Good judgment should be 
used in all cases. Cruel treatment never improves the 




Fig. 130. 



A Shoe in Proper 
Position 



HORSES 203 



horse. A frosty bit should never be put Into a horse's 
mouth. Warm it by breathing on it or by holding it 
in the hand. A horse should never be checked too high. 
Such treatment is cruel and barbarous. The horse should 
not be left facing a cold wind when standing. See that 
the collar fits the horse's neck properly. Examine the 
horse's teeth frequently;., a horse cannot eat properly 
when his teeth are poor. Use the currycomb and brush 
freely. A horse should never be put to hard work before 
he is five years of age. 

EXERCISES 

1 . Notice the various breeds of horses in your locality. 
Make a list of them. 

2. Make a ration for horses at medium work (per 
],000 pounds, live weight). Try 15 pounds red clover, 
6 pounds wheat bran, and 4 pounds of corn. 

3. Taking the ration you have just made (per 1,000 
pounds, live weight), find out how much of each feed 
would be required by a horse weighing 1,400 pounds. 

4. Place the tables just made in your notebook. 
Make an outline of the following: 

1. The important breeds of horses: 



(a) Draft horses 

r.. 

(b) Roadsters <j . 



204 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



(c) Coach horses -N . 



(d) Ponies^ 



2. Important points in feeding horses 



3. Other points in regard to the horse < 



TABLE B.* FEEDING STANDARDS FOR HORSES (PER DAY, PER 1,000 
POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT) 





Dry Matter 
(pounds) 


Digestible Nutrients 




Protein 
(pounds) 


Carbohydrates and 
(Fatsx2.4) (pounds) 


Horses at light work 
Horses at medium work 
Horses at heavy work 


20 

24 
26 


1.5 
2.0 
2.5 


10.5 

12.4 
15.2 



*Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 

REFERENCES 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 
Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 
Cur Domestic Animals, Burkett. 
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 




^ ^« "^ . y^i-'- 



SHEEP 



205 



CHAPTER XXIII 

SHEEP 

Sheep are easily taken care of and require less grain 
than other kinds of stock. They prefer hills and upland 
regions, will thrive well on rough and scanty pasturage 
where other farm animals can scarcely exist, and are 




able to withstand cold weather. They are not liable to 
disease unless they are exposed to moisture. They 
improve the fertility of the land and keep down weeds. 



206 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Classes of Sheep — Sheep are raised for wool and for 
mutton. It is convenient to classify them according to 
the wool produced. We may, then, classify them as 
fine-wooled breeds, medium-wooled breeds, and long- 
wooled breeds. 

FINE-WOOLED BREEDS 

The Merino — The original home of the Merino is in 
Spain. The Merino has large wrinkles or folds on its 
body and its neck, as shown in the illustration. This 
breed produces finer wool than any other. Merinos 
thrive well in warm climates. Large numbers of them 




Fig. 132. Southdown Ewe 



SHEEP 



207 



are raised in the western and southwestern parts of the 
United States. American Merinos are somewhat larger 
than the Spanish Merinos. 

The Delaine — The Delaine is a descendant from the 
Merino. It has fewer wrinkles than the Merino. It 
does best in hilly regions. The Delaine is valuable as 
mutton. 

The Rambouillet is sometimes called the French Merino. 
It is larger, and is of value for mutton as well as for wool. 
This breed is very hardy^ and is popular in the West. 

MEDIUM-WOOLED BREEDS 

The Southdown — This hornless breed takes its name 
from the upland regions of England known as The Downs. 




Fig. 133. Hampshire Downs 



208 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The head and the legs of the Southdown sheep are of 
light brown. The wool Is of medium fineness and rather 
short. Southdown sheep are especially valuable for 
mutton. 

The Shropshire was perfected in England. The size 
of the sheep is greater than that of the Southdown, and 

the fleece is somewhat 




Fig. 135. Lincoln Ewe 



heavier. This breed 
is believed to be well 
adapted to lowlands; 
therefore it is kept ex- 
tensively in the Missis- 
sippi valley. The face, 
ears, and legs are usually 
dark brown. The meat 
is fine, and the wool is 
good. 

The Horned Dorset 
is an English sheep, 
somewhat larger than 
the Southdown. Face, 
nose, legs, and hoofs are 
white. There is a tuft 
of wool on the forehead. 
Both male and female 
have, horns. 



SHEEP 



209 



The Hampshire resembles the Shropshire, but is larger 
and coarser. Face and legs are black. The fleece is not 
so heavy as that of the Shropshire. This breed is said 
to adapt itself to southern conditions well. 

The Oxford is a large sheep with a dark face. It is 
said to adapt itself readily to all climates. This breed 
is not widely kept in the United States. 

The Cheviot — The hilly region between Scotland and 
England is the original home of this breed. The head 
and the legs of the Cheviot sheep are pure white. This 
hardy breed produces wool of medium length adapted 
to making Cheviot cloth. The animals make excellent 

mutton. 

LONG-WOOLED BREEDS 

The Lincoln — This breed is noted for its long wool. 
It is seldom raised in the United States. 

The Cotswold — The 

Cotswold is a large 
sheep with white face 
and legs. It has a large 
tuft of wool on the 
forehead. The breed is 
valuable for mutton 
and wool. It is raised 
to some extent in the 

United States. Fig. 136. Cotswold Ram 




210 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The Leicester sheep is of large size. The face and 
legs are white. The wool is long. The breed is not 
popular in the United States. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a list of the various breeds of sheep found 
in your locality. Which of these breeds is preferred? 

2. Examine the fleece on a sheep. Notice how clean 



TABLE C*. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR SHFFP (PER DAY) 




Live 


Dry 


Digestibl* 


Nutrients 








Carbohy- 




ANIMALS 


Weight 


Matter 




drates and 


Nutritive 




(pounds) 


(pounds) 


Protein 
(pounds) 


(Fatsx 

2.4) 
(pounds) 


Ratio 


Coarse-wooled breeds 


100 


2.0 


0.12 


1.09 


1:9.1 


Fine-wooled breeds 


100 


2.3 


0.15 


1.27 


1:8.5 


Fattening sheep (1st period) 


100 


3.0 


0.30 


1.62 


1:5.4 


Fattening sheep (2d period) 


100 


2.8 


0.35 


1.59 


1:4.5 


Growing sheep (wool breeds) 












Age in Months 












4-6 


60 


1.5 


0.20 


1.02 


1:5.0 


6-8 


75 


1.9 


0.21 


1.14 


1:5.4 


8-11 


80 


1.8 


0.17 


1.02 


1:6.0 


11-15 


90 


2.0 


0.16 


1.09 


1:7.0 


15-20 


100 


2.2 


0.15 


1.15 


1:7.7 


Growing sheep (mutton breeds) 












Age m Months 












4-6 


60 


1.6 


0.26 


1.05 


1:4.0 


6-8 


80 


2.1 


0.28 


1.34 


1:4.8 


8-11 


100 


2.4 


0.30 


1.55 


1:5.2 


11-15 


120 


2.8 


0.26 


1.64 


1:6.3 


15-20 


150 


3.3 


0.30 


1.95 


1:6.5 



*Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding.' 



SHEEP 211 

the wool is next to the skin. This is because the rough 
fibers of the wool tend to work the dirt away from the 
skin. 

3. Explain why it is that sheep do not suffer during 
cold weather. 

4. Mention some reasons why the farmer should raise 
sheep. 

5. Make a ration for sheep by using the table on 
the preceding page and Table I at the back of the 
book. 

REFERENCES 

The Shepherd's Manual, Stewart. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Sheep and Their Diseases, Rushworth. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Our Domestic Animals, Burkett 



212 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXIV 

SWINE 

Origin of Domestic Swine — Our domestic swine have 
descended from the wild hogs of Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
Our present breeds of hogs have been perfected by genera- 
tions of development. 

Hog Raising — When the hog is properly fed and cared 
for, it will make more body from a given quantity of 

feed than any other 
farm animal, and 
there is little waste 
in slaughtering. It is 
not profitable to raise 
"scrub" hogs, any more 
than it is profitable to 

Fig. 137. Poland China Hog ^.^Jg^ ''scrub" Cattle. 

A pure-bred pig will usually weigh more when one 
year old than a "scrub" would weigh when two years 
old. Hogs should be fed a variety of food. They should 
not be kept shut up in pens all the time, but should be 
allowed to roam in fields, or in large inclosures. Most 
diseases of hogs are the result of filth; therefore cleanli- 
ness is important in hog raising. 




'■ '' \ ^^^B 


1 








^^^^^Hii 




k> vV^^^^hI 


^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ fl^^H^^H 


■■•^ 


^ ''Ikk. -f^^^^^H| 


^^ fllH 




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f^^^H^^ 


^ ^'^■pl 


^JHH^^^Hk 


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m^^JK^^' 




"'^^^^^^^^hIH^I^IIk 


m 



SWINE 213 



Breeds of Swine — Swine are generally classified, accord- 
ing to size, into small, medium, and large breeds. For 
our purpose we shall simply consider the important breeds 
without any attempt to classify them. The principal 
breeds are Poland China, Berkshire, Duroc-Jersey, Tam- 
worth, Large Yorkshire, and Chester White. 

The Poland China originated in Ohio. Its color is 
black and white in patches. The head is short and thick,* 
the face is dished, and the ears are drooping. This is 
a popular breed in the United States. 

The Berkshire is black, with some white on the head, 
feet, and the end of the tail. The head is short, the face 
dished, and the ears erect. Animals of this breed do 




Fig. 138. Berkshire Hog 



214 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



well in pasture. They are raised to a considerable extent 
in the South. 

The Duroc- Jersey is red or yellow, with occasional 
spots of black. The head is short, with a slightly dished 
face, the ears drooping, the body long, and the hair 
thick and coarse. These hogs are good feeders, are easily 
fattened, and grow rapidly. 

The Tamworth-This hardy breed is of English origin. 
In color the Tarn worths are various shades of red. 
The nose is long and straight, the ears erect, and the 
legs long. 

The Large Yorkshire — The Yorkshires have long, 
narrow bodies, erect ears, and dished faces. The Chester 
White is preferred to this breed in the United States. 



^^^^^^^^H' t.'fi'j':' 


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1 


^PM|" 1 


^'' ^^' ff-- i 


||y 


^HMiiyi^^^^^^__^i^ 


^r.I~^^^!^.i,.^ 


M 



Fig. 139. Duroc- jersey Hog 



SWINE 



215 



The Chester White, as the name indicates, is white 
in color, but the skin sometimes has a blue tinge in 
spots. The breed is a native of Pennsylvania. Ex- 
cept in color, it differs little from the Poland China. 
Chester White hogs are large in size, are good lard 
hogs, and are raised to a considerable extent in the 
United States. 



TABLE D*. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR SWINE (PER DAY) 




Live 
Weight 
(pounds) 


Dry 
Matter 
(pounds) 


Digestibl 


i Nutrients 




ANIMAL 


Protein 
(pounds) 


Carbohy. 
drates and 

(Fats X 2.4) 


Nutritive 
Ratio 










(pounds) 




Fattening swine 












First period 


100 


3.6 


0.45 


2.66 


1:5.9 


Second period 


100 


3.2 


0.40 


2.52 


1:6.3 


Third period 


100 


2.5 


0.27 


1.89 


1:7.0 


Growing swine (breeding stock) 












Age in Months 












2-3 


50 


2.2 


0.38 


1.52 


1:4.0 


3-5 


100 


3.5 


0.50 


2.50 


1:5.0 


5-6 


120 


3.8 


0.44 


2.67 


1:6.0 


6-8 


200 


5.6 


0.56 


3.88 


1:7.0 


8-12 


250 


6.3 


0.53 


3.95 


1:7.5 


Growing fattening swine 












Age in Months 












2-3 


50 


2.2 


0.38 


1.52 


1:4.0 


3-5 


100 


3.5 


0.50 


2.50 


1:5.0 


5-6 


150 


5.0 


0.65 


3.56 


1:5.5 


6-8 


200 


6.0 


0.72 


4.29 


1:6.0 


8-12 


300 


7.8 


0.90 


5.70 


1:6.4 



*Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 



216 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig 140. Tamworth Hog 



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^ 


^ 


'^B^^B 


■i^j 


-JJYrJ^ir'Nr* v^'^^^^IM 


'^ 




^^IHk^^ 


s^%^^*^^ 


■IHi^S 


l^-s* 


™-W"*W 










^^ 



Fig. 141. Chester White Hog 



SWINE 217 



EXERCISES 

1. Observe the various breeds of swine raised in 
your locality. Which breeds are raised to the greatest 
extent ? 

2. Make a ration consisting of skimmed milk and corn 
for a pig weighing 150 pounds. 

3. A hog weighing 150 pounds is to be fed whey, 
middlings, and corn. Make a ration adapted for the 
purpose. 

4. Make a ration for a hog weighing 200 pounds. 
Include corn and middlings in the ration. 

REFERENCES 

Swine in America, Coburn. 

Diseases of Swine, Craig. 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 

Swine Husbandry, Coburn. 

The Hog Industry, Rommel. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. 



218 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXV 

POULTRY 
CHICKENS 

Breeds of Chickens — Pure-bred chickens require no 
more food or care than inferior fowls. It pays to keep 
them. There are over 100 standard varieties in this 

country, but only 
a few of them 
are popular. The 
breedsof chickens 
may be divided 
into the follow- 
ing classes: 

1 . Egg Breeds. 
Those kept chief- 
ly for the eggs 

which they pro- 
Fig. 142. White Leghorn Hen i 

2. Meat breeds. Those valuable for table use. 

3. General purpose breeds. Those valuable both for 
eggs and for table use. 

Egg Breeds. The principal egg breeds are the Leg- 
horns, the Minorcas, and the Hamburgs, with several 
varieties in each breed. 




POULTRY 



219 



Leghorns are rather small 
fowls with large red combs 
and wattles. Brown, white, 
black, and buff are the 
prevailing colors. Leghorns 
are excellent egg producers 
and very rarely want to sit. 
They should not be kept in 
close confinement. 

Minorcas — Minorcas are 
either black or white. The 
black variety is preferred. 
The breed resembles the Leghorns somewhat, but the 
fowls are larger, have larger combs, and their ear lobes 
are pure white. The Minorcas are practically non-sitters 
and very good lay- 




Fig. 143. Black Minorca Cockerel 



ers. 

Hamburgs — The 
six varieties which 
compose this breed 
are all attractive 
birds. They are light 
feeders, and good 
layers, but the eggs 
are rather small. 
They are practical- 
ly non-sitters. 




Fig. 1 44. Silver Spangled Hamburg Cockerel 



220 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Meat Breeds — Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans, and 
Indian Game are classed under meat breeds. 

Brahmas — There are two varieties of this popular breed, 
the Light and the Dark. The Light Brahmas are pre- 
ferred. They are very large fowls with small combs. 




Fig. 145. Light Brahmas 

The feet are more or less covered with feathers, as shown 
in the illustration. They lay large, brown eggs, are good 
sitters, and can be kept in close confinement. 

Cochins — There are four varieties of Cochins: Buff, 
Partridge, Black, and White. They rank next to the 



POULTRY 



221 



Brahmas in size, being 
slightly smaller. They 
are very hardy, fair 
layers, and good sitters. 

Langsham — There 
are two varieties of this 
fowl. Light and Black. 
They are fair layers 
and good sitters. 

The Indian Game 
is distinctly a meat 
breed. They are good 
sitters but poor layers. 

General Purpose 
Breeds — Plymouth 
Rocks, Wyandottes, 
Rhode Island Reds, 
and Orpingtons are 
the most popular gen- 
eral purpose breeds. 
Other general purpose 
breeds are the Hou- 
dan, the Java, and the 
Dominique. 




Fig. 146. Buff Cochin Hen 




Fig. 147. Pair of Langshans 



The Plymouth Rocl^s — For general purpose fowls the 
various varieties of Plymouth Rock are probably the 



222 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

most popular of all breeds, with the barred in the lead. 
The fowls are good layers and good sitters. 

Wyandottes — There are eight varieties of this breed, 
which ranks close to the Plymouth Rock in popularity. 
They are about the same size as the Plymouth Rock, 
are very hardy, easily cared for, and bear close confine- 
ment well. They are good layers and sitters. 

The Houdans — All Houdans have a large top-knot of 
feathers on the head, as shown in the illustration. They 
have five toes on each foot instead of four, the usual 
number. They are good fowls for table use, are good 
layers, and non-sitters, but their top-knots make them 
unpopular as farm fowls. 

Care of Chickens — In order to produce eggs, chickens 
must be given suitable feeds. They must be sheltered 
from cold or disagreeable weather. Sometimes they must 
receive attention in regard to diseases. Most diseases 
of chickens are the result of insanitary and improper 
conditions. 

Location and Kind of Poultry House — It is very impor- 
tant that a dry place be selected for the poultry house. 
A porous soil is preferable to one of clay, because it can 
be kept in a more sanitary condition. If possible, a 
southern or an eastern slope should be chosen. As 
chickens like plenty of sunshine, the building should be 
lighted by windows on the southern side. The floor 



POULTRY 



223 



should be covered with some material to make the chick- 
ens scratch for their feed. Clean straw, either cut or 




„ 'sJf~*'^ 



Fig. 148. Barred Plymouth Rock Cock 



224 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

whole, placed about six inches deep on the floor, is excel- 
lent for this purpose. In the fall some dry dust from 
the road should be placed in boxes or barrels for winter 
use. A box of this should be kept where the chickens 
can take a dust bath whenever they choose. This will 
do much to keep them free from lice. It is an excellent 
plan to have a scratching shed with an open front facing 
the south, so the chickens will get plenty of sunshine. 
In mild weather they should have an inclosure to run in. 

Cleanliness — The walls and roosts should be sprayed 
frequently with whitewash. No filth should be allowed 
in the scratching shed or in the yards. The chickens 
should be supplied with water. A convenient way of 
doing this is to place the pan on a shelf about 8 inches 
from the floor, and have a cover above the pan, as shown 
in the illustration. This arrangement will prevent the 
chickens from getting into the pan. 

Feeding — When hens are allowed to roam at will they 
eat grains, green feeds, insects, worms, and grit. It has 
been found that if hens are to lay well when confined in 
winter, they must be given such feeds as they eat when 
allowed to roam in summer. A variety of grain should 
be fed in small quantities. The fowls must receive 
plenty of green feeds, such as cabbages, turnips, beets, 
and potatoes. These may be chopped fine, cut in two 
and left on the floor, or hung on a string at a convenient 




Every boy and girl can raise good poultry 



POULTRY 



225 



height. When the latter method is used, the fowls will 
get considerable exercise. Clover hay cut fine may be 
fed after boiling water is poured over it and it is allowed 
to stand a few hours. Animal matter should be fed to 
take the place of insects. Chopped meat scraps or 
animal meal may be used for this purpose. Green cut 
bone should be fed. When starting to feed green cut 
bone, not over one pound a day should be given to every 
40 hens. After they 
are used to the cut 
bone, one pound for 
every 20 hens is suffi- 
cient. A bone cutter 
is a convenience, and 
where a large number 
of chickens is kept it 
is a necessity. Milk 
makes an excellent 
feed for poultry. When 
sour milk is fed, too much must not be given. Crushed 
oyster shells, old mortar, and fine gravel should be fed. 
When chickens are properly fed and cared for there is 
no reason why they should not lay as well in winter as 
in summer. 

Incubators and Brooders — By means of the incubator 
and the brooder it is possible to hatch eggs and raise 
chickens without setting hens. 




Fig. 149. Water Pan With Cover 




Fig. 150. Brown China Geese 



POULTRY 227 



DUCKS 

Ducks can easily be raised on the farm. If they have 
access to a swimming pond they will obtain much food 
from it, but they can be raised just as well without it. 
The natural food of the duck consists of grasses, small 
fishes, insects, etc. For this reason ducks should not 
be fed much hard grain. 

The feathers of the duck serve to keep out almost 
any amount of cold. On this account they do not need 
as warm houses as chickens do. So long as a duck can 
keep its feet warm the rest of its body will be comfortable. 
While it is the nature of the duck **to take to water," 
it must not be kept in a damp place. This means that 
the duck house must be dry. 

GEESE 

Geese must have free range of water if they are to be 
raised successfully. They cannot be raised profitably 
in such large numbers as ducks can, yet there are usually 
some places on the farm that are not good for anything 
else. Lands having streams or springs in them make 
good goose pastures. 

TURKEYS 

The meat of the turkey always brings a high price in 
the market. The turkey is of a roving disposition and 
does not do well when kept in confinement. The young 



228 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 151. Pair of Indian Runner Ducks 




Fig. 152. A Prize Turkey 



POULTRY 229 



turkeys are very delicate and require careful attention 
until they are two or three months old 

REFERENCES 

Making Poultry Pay, Powell. 

Farm Poultry, Watson 

Profitable Poultry Production, Kains. 

Turkeys and How to Grow Them, Myrick. 

Duck Culture, Rankin 

Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. 

Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. 

Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, Robinson. 

The Diseases of Poultry, Salmon 



230 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXVI 

BEES 

Many people have spent their lives in studying bees. 
Strange to relate, the blind Hubber discovered many 
wonderful things about these interesting insects. He 
was able to do this with the help of his wife and a hired 
man, whose work he directed with astonishing foresight. 

Honey Bees have been domesticated for a long time. 
They were formerly kept in straw hives, but no progres- 
sive beekeeper would think of using such old-fashioned 
methods today. The hives used now are built on the 
Langstroth principle. The frames in the hive are adjust- 
able, and boxes called "supers" 
can be added to the top of the 
hive. Each super contains small 
boxes or sections. In order to 
aid the bees in building the 
comb straight, a strip of wax 
called **comb foundation" is 
placed in each section. Each 
small section contains about 
one pound of honey. 

„. , „ , , „. „,. , Kinds of Bees — The hive 

Fig. 153. Langstroth Hive With . i. i 

Supers contains three kmds of bees. 




BEES 



231 



The workers are the smallest and there are many thou- 
sands of them in a single hive. The big, clumsy, lazy 
drones are the male bees, and are destroyed or driven 
out by the workers when winter approaches. As they 
have no stings, they cannot defend themselves. The 




Fig. 154. Small Sections With Comb Foundation 

queen bee is longer than the worker bee. She is the 
mother of the whole colony. She does not gather honey. 
Her occupation is that of laying eggs. She sometimes 
lays 3,000 or 4,000 eggs a day, laying one in each cell. 

Various Kinds of Cells — There are three kinds of cells 
in each hive : honey cells, drone cells, and queen cells. 
The bees store honey in the honey cells, which are also 
used in the rearing of worker bees. The drone cells are 
of larger size but the same shape as the honey cells, 
and are used for breeding drones. These kinds of cells 



232 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



are usually placed nearly horizontal in the hives. The 
long thimble-shaped cells for breeding queens are larger 
than either of the other kinds of cells, and are usually 
placed in a vertical position. 




Fig. 155. The Honey Bee 
a, worker ; b, queen ; c, drone 

Development of the Young Bees — The eggs hatch in 
about three days into little white grubs or larvae. The 
hungry larvae are fed by the young worker bees, commonly 
called nurse bees. The queen bee larvae receive a spe- 
cial kind of bee food manufactured by the workers. It 
is sometimes called "royal jelly," because only the queen 
regularly receives it. When the larvae get older they 
are fed honey and pollen. When the larvae have suffi- 
ciently grown, the nurse bees stop feeding them and cover 
each cell with a porous cap. Each larva then spins a 
cocoon about itself, gradually changes into the pupa 
state, and later the fully developed bee bites a hole 
through the cell and comes out. 



BEES 



233 



Queen bees are hatched from the same kind of eggs 
as the worker bees, but the royal jelly is believed to be 
responsible for their developing into queens instead of 
workers. 

The drones come from eggs called unfertilized eggs, 
and nothing but drones can result, no matter how much 
they are fed. 

The Business of the Workers — As you have already 
seen, some of the young workers are nurse bees. Their 
\^\^JX^^^ business is to feed the larvae. 

'f''-fC'\ Some of the worker bees gather 

'i[ \ riArtar for honey, some make 




Fig. 156. Queen Cells and Fig. 157. Different Stages in the Develop- 
Worker Cells ment of the Honey Bee 

ITie long thimble-shaped cells are a, egg ; i, young larva ; c, old larva; d, pupa. Ma- 
queen cells ture bees are shown in figure 1 55. 

wax, some gather pollen for bee bread, and some gather 
bee glue from the buds of trees. The bee glue is used 
to fasten in the comb and to fill the cracks in the hive. 



234 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

The Honey Gatherers — Perhaps you have observed 
bees going from flower to flower, gathering the nectar 
through their long tubelike tongues. The bee swallows 
the nectar and stores it in a honey sack within its body. 
It then flies to its home and deposits the nectar in a cell. 
The nectar is not honey, however, and it must remain 
in the cell for some time before it is sealed up. The 
bees are continually forcing currents of air through the 
hive by rapidly moving their wings. This aids in evap- 
orating the water from the nectar. Finally the honey 
is ready to be sealed and each cell is gradually capped. 

The Wax Makers — When the bees desire to make wax 
they gorge themselves and hang together in festoons 
while they wait for the honey to digest. The wax comes 
out between the rings of the abdomen. Each bee has 
a wonderful pair of little pincers on each hind leg, with 
which it takes the wax flakes from the rings of its 
abdomen. Before the wax can be used to build honey- 
comb it must be moistened in the mouth of the bee. 

Swarming — There comes a time in the history of most 
bee colonies when the old bees with their queen leave 
the hive and venture forth to seek a new home. They 
leave the honey they have stored up for the future gen- 
eration. After leaving the hive, the bees fly round and 
round the queen, moving farther and farther away from 
the hive. They usually collect on the branch of some 



BEES 



235 



nearby tree before leaving for their new home. The bee- 
keeper takes advantage of this and shakes them into a 
new hive, which they are generally willing to accept as 
their home. 

It is desirable to make the colony as strong as possible; 
hence, the beekeeper sometimes combines two swarms, or 
resorts to various means 
to prevent swarming. 
When there is plenty 
of room in the hive, 
when the hive is shad- 
ed and well ventilated, 
bees are not so likely 
to swarm as when the 
hive is crowded and 
overheated. Other 
methods used to pre- 
vent swarming are de- 
scribed in the references 
given at the end of this 

chapter ^^^' ^^^* Examining a Brood Frame 

Avoiding Stings — Many people who would like to keep 
bees do not do so because of stings. To avoid stings 
it is necessary that the beekeeper move slowly and 
quietly. Bees resent any quick motion, or any dodging 
of the head, be it ever so slight. It is not advisable to 
wear black clothing, as that color seems to excite bees. 




236 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



A bee veil is useful in protecting the face. A "smoker" 
which burns wood is a necessity, especially when remov- 
ing the honey or opening the hive. There is nothing 
that will subdue bees like a few puffs of smoke. If pos- 
sible, bees should be handled during the middle of the 
day when the weather is warm. It is best not to handle 
them at night or when the weather is cold and damp. 

Some varieties of bees are 
more gentle than others. This 
should be taken into account 
when starting an apiary. 





Fig. 159. Bee Veil and Smoker 



Races of Bees — The most gentle variety of bees is the 
Caucasian. It was introduced into our country from 
Russia by the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Caucasian bees are good workers and good defenders of 
their hives in case other bees try to rob them. 

The Carniolans are also a gentle race of bees, but not 
so gentle as the Caucasians. They are good honey 



BEES 237 

gatherers, and owing to their hardiness winter well, even 
in cold climates. 

Italian bees are very popular in the United States. 
They are good workers and excellent honey gatherers, 
but in wintering qualities are somewhat inferior to the 
other races. The Italians are not so gentle as the two 
races first mentioned. 

The Cyprians are excellent honey gatherers. They 
are good defenders of the hive, but their spiteful nature 
makes them difficult to handle. This race of bees is 
not manageable with smoke. 

The Cyrians are similar to the Cyprians. 

The Black or Brown bees are poorer honey gatherers, 
and poorer defenders of their hives than the other races 
we have mentioned. They are very spiteful and trouble- 
some. It does not pay to bother with this variety. 

Wintering the Bees — This is one of the great problems 
in beekeeping. To winter bees successfully it is neces- 
sary that each colony should have a good queen, that 
it should have a good cluster of healthy bees, that it 
should have an abundant supply of food, and that it 
should be protected from changes in temperature. 

EXERCISES 

1. Cover a bee with a drinking glass and examine it. 
Notice the pockets on the hind legs. Examine them 
with a magnifying glass. 



238 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

2. Leave the bee under the glass for several hours. 
Then catch another bee and place it under the tumbler. 
If both are from the same hive, you may see the new- 
comer feed the hungry bee. 

3. Get a piece of honeycomb and examine the cells. 
Do you know why the cells are built six-sided? Why 
are they placed on a slant? 

4. Get a beekeeper to cut out a few brood cells for 
you. Notice that the queen cells differ from the others. 

5. Watch bees to learn which kinds can obtain nectar 
from red clover blossoms. You will find that honey bees, 
with the exception of a single recently developed variety, 
do not have tongues long enough to reach the nectar 
in red clover blossoms. Do bumble bees work on red 
clover blossoms? 

REFERENCES 

The A B C and X Y Z of Bee Culture, Root. 

The Beekeeper's Guide, Cook. 

How to Keep Bees, Comstock. 

The Mysteries of Beekeeping Explained, Root. 

The Bee People, Morley. 



BIRDS 239 



CHAPTER XXVII 

BIRDS 

Birds Help Mankind — Birds are great benefactors of 
the human race; therefore they should be protected In 
every possible manner. Although some birds eat grain 
and small fruit, they more than repay the little damage 
by destroying a large number of insects and weed seeds. 
If all the birds were killed it is certain that under present 
conditions insects would have a chance to multiply to 
such an extent that they would ruin all plant life upon 
the earth. 

The damage that birds do is usually exaggerated. If 
a farmer sees a bird eat a few grains of wheat, he is apt 
to accuse the birds of destroying his wheat crop. He 
does not take account of the insects and weed seeds 
the birds destroy. If the Cooper hawks, the sharp- 
shinned hawks, or the great horned owls catch chickens, 
the other 50 or more varieties of owls and hawks are 
classed as chicken thieves, and are killed for the damage 
done by two or three varieties. The farmer forgets that 
hawks and owls feed largely on rats, mice, grasshoppers, 
crickets, and May beetles. 

In like manner the crow is credited with destroying 
corn fields, but is not credited for his work in devouring 
immense numbers of grasshoppers and cutworms. It is 



240 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



true that the crow eats sprouting corn, but the farmer 
can prevent this by tarring the seed when it is planted. 
This is much easier than killing crows, and as the crows 
will not eat the seed soaked in tar, they will turn their 




Fig. 160. Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of a Tent Caterpillar 

attention to the insects in the corn field. Bad as the 
crow is, he should be given credit for the good that he 
does. The extermination of the crow would be a loss 
to the country. 



BIRDS 241 



Results of Investigations — For years the United States 
Department of Agriculture has had experts studying 
birds in order to get exact information concerning their 
food. The results of these investigations show that birds 
are great insect eaters, that there are only a few varieties 
of birds that eat grain and fruit to a large extent, and 
that the majority of people do not appreciate the value 
of birds to the farmer. 

Classes of Birds — We might classify birds in many 
ways. First, we might classify them as being harmful 
or helpful to man. There would, of course, be only a 
few harmful varieties. Secondly, we might classify them 
according to their habits, as wading birds, swimming 
birds, perching birds, and so on. Inasmuch as the farmer 
is chiefly interested in the economic value of birds, the 
United States Department of Agriculture suggests a 
scheme of classification based upon the manner in which 
birds obtain food. We might have the following classes: 

1. Birds that search the ground for insects and their 
larvae. This class includes thrushes, sparrows, larks, 
wrens, grouse, quail, and blackbirds. 

2. Birds that make a specialty of digging larvae out 
of the tree or shrub as well as picking up insects at the 
surface. Woodpeckers belong to this class. 

3. Birds that pick up insects on the trunks, branches, 
and leaves of trees. This class includes the tanagers, 
orioles, warblers, chickadee, cuckoos, waxwings, and vireos. 



242 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



4. Birds that catch their food while flying in the air. 

Whippoorwill, night hawk, swift, swallows and flycatchers 

of various kinds, and some of the warblers belong to 

this class. 

Enemies of Birds — Birds are reduced in numbers by 

man, cats, snakes, the elements, and accidents. Boys, 

not realizing their economic 
value, shoot birds for sport, 
men hunt them, and women 
indirectly cause the death 
of many by wearing them 
upon hats, and of many 
more that starve because 
their parents are killed. 
Cats kill an enormous 
number of birds. Severe 
storms and accidents cause 
the death of some birds. 
Many deaths are due to 
birds flying into unsus- 
pected objects, such as 
broken branches, telegraph 

wires, lighthouses, etc. As the English sparrow drives 

other birds away and takes possession of the nests, it 

must be regarded as a common enemy. 

Protecting the Birds — Nearly all states have laws 

intended to protect birds. People who study birds 




Fig. 161. Cooper Hawk (Chicken 
Hawk) 



BIRDS 



243 



become interested, realize their value, and lose their desire 
to kill. If bird houses are built many varieties of birds 
will take possession of them. Dishes of water placed 
where birds can have access to them, suet tied to con- 
venient posts, and the absence of cats and dogs, encourage 
birds to make their homes on the premises. In short, 
if birds are convinced that they are welcome and that 
no danger awaits them, they will be glad to live near 
our dwellings. 

EXERCISES 

1 . See how many kinds of birds you can find. Observe 
what kinds of food each bird eats. If you notice any 
birds new to you, use a bird guide. 

2. Observe the feet and the bills of birds to see how 
they differ. 

3. Make a bird calendar similar to the following: 

BIRD CALENDAR 



Name of Bird 


Date when first seen 


Food 


Insects 


Seeds 


Fruit 


Robin 





















4. Find the number of acres in your state. It is 
likely that there are at least four birds to the acre on 
the average. If this is the case, how many birds are 



244 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 162. Birds Make War on Insects 

there in the state? If each bird eats 10 insects a day 
(this is below the average), how many insects would be 
destroyed in three months? 

REFERENCES 

Bird Guide, Reed. 

Teachers' Manual and Portfolio of Bird Life, Chapman. 

The American Natural History, Hornaday. 

Bird Studies with a Camera, Chapman. 

In Bird Land, Keyser. 

In Nesting Time, Miller. 

A Year with the Birds, Flagg. 

Our Native Birds, Lange. 

Birds that Hunt and Are Hunted, Blanchon. 

Bird Homes, Dugmore. 

The Bird Book, Eckstorm. 

North American Birds, Chapman. 

Bird World, Stickney and Hoffman. 

Water Birds, Reed 



FARM IMPLEMENTS 245 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

FARM IMPLEMENTS 

Modern Methods Require Good Implements — The 

purchasing, repairing, and caring for farm implements 
take considerable of the farmer's time. There is a great 
deal of difference between the implements used by our 
ancestors and our modern farm machinery. Contrast 
the methods of bygone days, when it was deemed suffi- 
cient to plow the ground with a crooked branch of a tree, 
to plant the seed by hand, and to stir the soil around 
each plant with a clam shell fastened to a* stick, with our 
present-day method of turning the prairie sod with a 
steam plow, of cultivating several rows of plants at once, 
and harvesting acres with improved machinery where 
our ancestors harvested square rods. No matter how 
small a farm is, some tools are necessary. In purchasing 
tools the farmer should secure those suitable for the 
purpose intended. He should also keep them in repair 
and protect them from the action of the weather. 

Kinds of Tools — The kinds of tools used on the farm 
will depend upon the crop to be harvested as well as 
upon other conditions. For example, if a farmer grows 
clover hay on land covered with stones and knolls, he 
would not be wise in purchasing a side-delivery hay- 
rake. If he wishes to cultivate closely planted rows of 



246 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



small crops, he would not use a cultivator with broad 
shovels. The selection of farm tools is no small task, 
especially if the wearing qualities of the tools are consid- 
ered. It pays to purchase good tools, even if they cost 
more than poor ones. If it is necessary to save to the 




Fig. 163, Everything Is Done At One Operation 

extent of purchasing cheap machinery, one should see that 
the material is of good quality where the heaviest wear is. 
Keeping the Tools in Order — It pays to take good 
care of the tools, not only because they last longer, but 
because it saves labor. If a hoe is used to cut weeds, 
it will pay to sharpen it. If a piece of machinery is 
worn, it will pay to replace the worn-out part if the rest 
of the machine is all right. If there are any tools in need 
of repair, the sooner they receive attention the better. 



FARM IMPLEMENTS 247 

Many times there are evidences of neglect on the part 
of the farmer. Some farmers will build a barn and let 
it stand without painting until the wood starts to decay. 
They will spend several hundred dollars in plows, harrows, 
self-binders, and other machinery, which they will often 
let stand exposed to the elements until ruined. 

How to Protect Farm Tools and Machinery — In the 

first place, there should be a shelter of some kind for all 
implements and machinery. Such a sheltered place need 
not be expensive. There should be some means at hand 
for repairing machinery. It is convenient to have a 
blacksmith outfit, especially if the farm is far away from 
town. A blacksmith outfit will more than pay for itself 
in a few years. All woodwork should be painted. A 
coat of good paint will do much to keep the wood from 
decaying. All unpainted metal surfaces should be kept 
polished, as polished surfaces resist decay. Metal parts 
after use should have all adhering particles of soil removed. 
For example, when an implement is used in sticky soils, 
it should not be allowed to lie around covered with mud. 
Lastly, there should be a place for everything, otherwise 
tools are apt to be lost or left exposed to the elements, 
and a great deal of inconvenience is sure to result. 

EXERCISES 

1. Observe tools and machinery on various farms. 
Are they properly protected from the elements? Esti- 



FARM IMPLEMENTS 249 

mate the cost of the tools and the machinery exposed 
to the action of the weather, and the cost of sheds neces- 
sary to protect them. The estimated cost of the shed 
is what per cent, of the estimated cost of the machinery? 
How many years do you think the machinery would last 
exposed to the weather? How much would be saved 
each month by having the machinery properly protected? 

2. Examine the tools on your farm. Are any in need 
of repairs of any kind ? Do you know how to make the 
necessary repairs? If not, inquire of someone, or inquire 
in class. Is there a place for everything on your farm? 
Make plans for keeping farm tools in definite places. 
Are there any tools on your farm that have been injured 
by being exposed to the weather? How could this have 
been prevented? 

3. Visit various farms in your neighborhood. Who are 
able to keep the most tools to the acre, the farmers who 
give proper care, or those who give them improper care? 

4. Place a piece of sheet iron outdoors where it will 
be exposed to moisture, and another one where it will be 
dry. Notice how soon the exposed piece rusts. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, Davidson and Chase. 

Farm AppHances. 

Farm Conveniences. 

Modern Blacksmithing, Holstrom. 

Farm Engines and How to Run Them, Stephenson. 

Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter, Schreiber. 

Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, Cobleigh 



250 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXIX 

ROADS 

An experienced traveler can estimate the condition of 
a community by the roads. Prosperous locaUties have 
good roads. Good roads help to beautify the country 
through which they pass. They also raise the value of 
property near them, and save time and expense in hauling 
products to market. People are beginning to see that 
money spent for building good roads is a paying invest- 
ment. Good roads are cheaper in the end than poor ones. 

Hitherto a large portion of the money spent for building 
roads has been wasted. This is largely because people 
left the overseeing of roads to men who did not under- 
stand road building. In many cases, if experts had been 
employed to supervise the work, the money expended 
for keeping the roads in repair could have been used to 
build good roads in the first place. People have not 
realized how expensive poor roads are. The first illus- 
tration in this chapter shows a recently completed road 
which cost about $2,000 a mile. For 30 years farmers 
had been dragging small loads to market over several 
miles of sandy road. Now they are able to haul several 
times as much. In a few years this road will pay for 
itself. Of course, the first cost of good roads is greater 
than the first cost of poor ones, but very little repair 



ROADS 



251 



work will have to be done on good roads. Poor roads 
require so much repairing that after several years they 
will have cost a large amount. It is better to spend the 
money for good roads in the first place. 



-Several things are to be 
Grade, drainage, founda- 




Factors to Be Considered 

considered in road building, 
tion and surface, qual- 
ity of materials used, 
and workmanship are 
factors that enter into 
road building. 

Grades — As a larger 
load can be hauled on 
a level than on a road 
running up and down 
hill, roads should be 
built as level as possible. It is much better to have 
roads level and winding than to have them run straight 
on section lines when they go up and down hills. It 
takes no more time to go around hills than it does to 
go over them. 

Drainage, Foundation, and Surface — Good drainage is 
necessary wherever good roads are desired. The founda- 
tion of roads must be compact and not soaked with water. 
When a road is paved, the paved surface rests on the 
foundation: therefore the foundation should be firm. The 



Fig. 165. 



A Good Single-Track Macadam 
Road 



252 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



surface of a road should also be firm, free from ruts, and 
should have a slight slope from the center to each side. 
In this way the surface water will be carried off. Some- 
times it is necessary to have side ditches or pipes of tile 
to carry away the water. 

Quality of Materials — Good material should be used 
when building roads. It is better to have a narrow 
road-bed built of good material than a wide one of poor 
quality. For example, a certain paved road was made 
wide and constructed entirely of sandstone in order to 
lessen the expense. While sandstone would have been 
all right for the lower layers of the road, it proved to 
be very poor material for the surface. The rolling of 




wagons over the surface reduced the sandstone to powder 
which was carried away by winds and washed away by 
rains. In a short time the large rock became exposed 
and made the road very rough. Finally the surface was 
covered with crushed rock of better grade. This made 
a good road. It would have been cheaper if the proper 
material had been used in the first place. 



ROADS 



253 



Workmanship — The overseer of road building should 
thoroughly understand his business, and the rest of the 
workmen should be intelligent enough to do their work 
properly. There has been too much haphazard work in 
the construction of roads. 

Sandy Roads — Sandy roads make traffic difficult. 
Roads of sand are exceptions to most rules that apply 
to other roads. For 
instance, sandy roads 
should not have a 
round surface. The 
surface should be flat. 
Sandy roads are best, 
when moist. They are 

poorest when dry. Moisture renders sand firm; hence, 
is not advisable to drain sandy roads. 




Fig. 167. Split Log Drag 



It 



How to Improve Sandy Roads — Straw, flax, marsh hay, 
bark, shingle sawdust, or shavings, when applied to the 
surface of sandy roads and covered with soil, will make a 
good road for five or six years. If clay does not have 
to be hauled too far, it can be applied to the surface. 
In the South sandy roads are improved by the addition 
of clay. Seven or 8 inches of clay is applied to the road, 
and the clay and the sand are thoroughly mixed while 
wet. The surface is rounded and rolled. This kind of 
a road is called the sand-clay road. 



254 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



The Making of Earth Roads — Pure clay makes poor 
roads, because the road-bed becomes soft when wet, and 
water does not pass through clay fast enough to make 
drainage satisfactory. Excellent roads are made by 
mixing clay, sand, and gravel together. 

In preparing the road-bed, all stumps, brush, and large 
rock should be first removed and the holes filled with 




Fig. 168. A Road Machine 

material similar to that making up the rest of the road- 
bed. The surface of the road-bed should then be rolled 
when the ground is moist. By use of a road machine 
a finishing layer should be applied and rolled. The roll- 
ing should be done by use of a road roller built for 



ROADS 255 



the purpose and not left to be done by passing rigs. 
Frequently the mistake is made of dumping loose 
earth and chunks of sod in the center of the road, the 
idea being that travel will pack and level the surface. 
The action of narrow-tired wheels on such a surface 
causes ruts to appear, and in a short time the road is 
in bad condition. If the surface of the road is compacted 
with a heavy roller, narrow-tired wheels will not be so 
apt to leave ruts and ridges. Of course, thorough drain- 
age is necessary on this type of road. The road should 
have a gentle slope from the center to each side so the 
water from rains will run off. 

A rolled surface is necessary to have a good earth road. 
Wide tires improve, narrow tires destroy a road. When- 
ever ruts appear in the road they should be filled. This 
can be accomplished by road machines or by using the 
split-log drag. This drag is made by sawing through a 
log lengthwise and fastening the two halves together by 
cross pieces so their edges will form a sort of a scraper. 
By drawing this over the road at a slant, the dirt will 
be scraped toward the center. This drag is useful in 
rounding up earth roads and filling ruts. Sometimes 
planks are used instead of logs for the making of road 
drags. 

Another mistake is often made in filling up holes in 
the road by packing them with the wrong material. For 
instance, if a hole in the road is filled with rock, the 



256 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



material around it will pack down and wear away faster 
than the rock, and a bump will be the result. The holes 
in a road should be packed full of material like that of 
which the road is made. 

Gravel Roads — Sometimes earth roads can be improved 
by applying gravel to the surface. The gravel should 

be rolled with a road 
roller in order to make 
the surface firm. 

Shell Roads — It is 
difficult in some parts 
of the country to secure 
gravel and rock suitable 
for road building. Shells 
can sometimes be easily 
shells is applied to the 
rolled. This makes a good 




Fig 169. A Steam Road Roller 



of 



obtained. A thick layer 

surface of the road and 

road for a few years, but the shells wear so rapidly that 

considerable attention must be given in order to keep the 

road in repair. 

Oiled Roads — In making oiled roads, the road-bed is 
first plowed. Then crude oil is applied and mixed with 
the soil by harrowing. Finally the road is leveled and rolled. 
The oiled roads of California have been very satisfactory. 

Macadam roads are named after J. L. McAdam, a 
Scotchman. The purpose of the road is well expressed 



ROADS 



257 



in McAdam's own words: "The stone is employed to 
form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring, over which 
vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all 
seasons of the year. Its thickness should be regulated 
only by the quality of the material necessary to form such 
a flooring and not at all by any consideration as to its 
own independent power of bearing weight. The erroneous 
idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil 
can be remedied by a large quantity of material has 




Fig. 170. Rock Crusher 

caused a large part of the costly and unsuccessful expen- 
ditures in making stone roads." 

The success of a macadam road depends largely upon 
the foundation. If a suitable foundation is not prepared, 
the dirt will gradually work to the surface, while the 



258 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




WmmmmB 

Fig. 171. First Course of Rock on a Macadam 
Road 

a, before rolling ; b, after rolling. Notice liow compact 
the rock is after it is rolled. 



stones will sink deep 
into the mud. The 
foundation should be 
solid, and should be of 
the same curvature as 
the finished road. 

The finished road- 
bed is covered with 
crushed rock. By 
using a rock crusher, a 
large quantity of stone 
can be crushed in a 
short time. As the 
crushed rock comes from the crusher, it is usually 
separated into various sizes by a revolving screen. The 
crushed rock is generally applied to the road in layers, 
the coarser layer being placed at the bottom. This 
layer is rolled before the upper layers are applied. For 
the top layer finer material is used. 

Telford roads differ from the macadam roads in having 
the bottom layer consist of large flat stones placed side 
by side. Macadam roads are just as good as telford 
roads for most purposes. It is thought by some that the 
telford roads are better in swampy places, but a good 
foundation is necessary in all road building. 

Cost of Roads — The cost of roads depends upon the 
materials used, the width of the road, the machinery to 



ROADS 



259 



be used, the cost of labor, and various local conditions. 
The cost of the same kind of road will not be the same 
in different localities. A road over which there is exten- 
sive traffic will soon pay for itself, but one over which 
there is little travel might not. In the latter case it 
would not be policy to build a very expensive road, while 
in the former case an expensive road would soon pay for 
itself. A road in most farming districts should not be 
too costly. Usually a narrow macadam road will not 
be too expensive. Although a single-track macadam 
road usually costs at least $1,000 a mile, it is some 
times possible to build 
cheaper ones. 



EXERCISES 
1 . Examine roads in 
your vicinity. Are they 
properly drained? Do 
you find any ruts? 
Of what materials is 
the road made? What 
material should be 
used to fill the ruts? 
Is the surface of the 
road gently sloping 
from the center to 
each side? Has the 
surface of the road 




Fig. 172. Prosperous Localities Have Good 
Roads 



260 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

been packed with a road roller? Suggest means of 
improving a particular road in your locality. 

2. Do roads in your locality run over hills? If so, 
where could they have been built so the grade would 
have been less? Draw a map showing this condition. 

3. If possible, visit a stone crusher in action. What 
kind of rock is used? Is the crushed rock separated into 
various sizes? If so, what is the average size of the 
pieces in each assortment? 

4. Visit roads while they are being built or repaired. 
Outline the results of your observations. 




Q. 

D 



U 



a 

H 

C 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 261 



CHAPTER XXX 

BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 

It is just as important to. have attractive grounds as 
it is to have attractive buildings. Besides the satisfac- 
tion and comfort derived from having beautiful grounds, 
the farm will be increased enough in value to make 
improvement a paying proposition. Have you ever 
passed by a farmhouse badly in need of a coat of paint, 
where there was no grass, no trees, and no flowers on 
the premises? How much would you be willing to pay 
for such a place? 

Many times farm buildings appear unsightly because 
the surrounding grounds are neglected. Not all people 
can have costly farm buildings, but the grounds can be 
made attractive at little expense. Unsightly buildings 
can be made to appear beautiful by the judicious planting 
of trees, shrubs, and vines. Even old rickety buildings 
take on a cheerful aspect when their ugliness is softened 
by climbing vines. 

In starting an attractive farm home it is necessary to 
plan on the location and size of the buildings, the style 
of landscape gardening to be followed, the size of the 
lawn, and the amount of money to be expended. 

Size and Kind of Buildings — Buildings do not neces- 
sarily have to be massive in order to be beautiful. Farm 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 263 

buildings should not be patterned after city buildings. 
For example, a house with a large number of gables may 
look all right packed in with a lot of other houses in a 
city, but such a building would not look well in the 
country where it would be isolated. A country house 
should have strong lines and should not be too high. 
A tall, narrow building looks ridiculous in the country, 
especially when set on a high hill. Large trees at the 
side will modify the appearance of a house, but in spite 
of all that can be done, a tall, narrow house on a country 
hill cannot be pleasing to the eye. It is important, then, 
that the style of the farm buildings be planned to fit 
the location. 

Location of the Buildings — Before building it is neces- 
sary to consider the topography of the land and the 
drainage. Usually it is best to build on the upper part 
of a slope where the drainage will be perfect. The water 
supply should be given a great deal of attention in order 
that it may be free from contamination. On this account 
the barn should never be placed on a slope above the 
house, but below it. In that way no seepage water 
from the barn will enter the well. 

Styles of Landscape Gardening — It is not possible for 
most farmers to secure the services of an expert land- 
scape gardener. As it takes years of study to understand 
all the details of landscape gardening, the farmer cannot 
be expected to have a comprehensive knowledge of the 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 265 

subject. He can, however, study the fundamental 
principles so he will make no grave mistake from the 
artistic standpoint. 

There are two types of landscape gardening. One is 
the geometrical or Italian type, and the other the natural 
or English type. In the geometrical style, the walks, 
drives, trees, and shrubs are arranged according to some 
geometrical plan, such as circle, square, triangle, and so 
forth. The natural type is the one generally favored 
for country homes in America. This plan follows the 
order of nature as closely as possible. Sometimes the 
skillful landscape gardener combines the geometrical and 
the natural style in one, but no one else should attempt 
such a combination. 

Whether it is best to choose the geometrical or the 
natural type will depend upon the preference of the in- 
dividual as well as upon the natural conditions. If the area 
of ground is very small, the geometrical type can be 
used to good advantage. If the grounds are large, the 
natural type is best because it does not take so much 
work to keep the grounds in order as it does when the 
geometrical type is used. The natural type should not 
have the appearance of being constantly interfered 
with by man. The geometrical type clearly indicates 
man's effort to regulate and modify nature's plan and 
still have the various parts blend into one harmonious 
whole. 



266 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

The Plan — After deciding which type of landscape 
gardening to use, a plan should be made. This should 
include all the details as well as the main characteristics 
of the design, and all the details should be subordinate 
to the one main idea which runs throughout the entire 
plan. After the plan is made, the appearance of the 
completed grounds should be considered from all points 
of view. It is well to ask one's self these questions: 

1. Is there sufficient unity? Does one idea prevail 
throughout the plan? 

2. Does the grouping of objects harmonize? 

3. Will the cost according to the plans exceed the 
amount of money on hand for that purpose? 

4. How can the plan be improved upon? Is there 
anything overdone? 

Walks and Drives — Only walks that are absolutely 
necessary should be laid. If the natural type is used, 
the walks approaching the house should not follow straight 
lines. Nature does not follow straight lines, but works 
in graceful curves. Of course, geometrical designs are 
exceptions to this rule. 

The Lawn — An effective lawn must be open. Trees 
and shrubs should not be scattered here and there upon 
the lawn, but should be placed at the sides and in the 
rear. The center of the lawn is no place for flower beds. 

In order to have a beautiful lawn there should be a 
thick stand of grass of uniform color. To secure this. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 



267 




Fig. 175. 



care should be taken that the grass seed does not contain 
varieties which will produce a mottled effect. For 
example, a mixture of blue grass and rye grass does not 
go well together, be- 
cause the rye grasses 
are lighter in color and 
more rapid in growth 
than the blue grasses. 
Frequently it is an 
advantage to use a sin- 
gle variety of grass seed 
instead of mixtures. 
Kentucky blue grass 
grows well on heavy 
soils, and on light sandy 
soils white clover is 
best. Redtop also 
makes a good lawn. 
On sandy soils where a 
mixture is desired, blue 
grass, redtop and white 
clover will be found 
satisfactory. In the 
South, lawns require 
grass plants which have 
underground rootstalks. Bermuda grass and St. Augus- 
tine grass is used extensively for lawns in the South. 



Shrubs Are Effective When Placed 
Near the House 




Fig. 176. Vines Are Artistic When Arranged 
in Retreating Corners 



268 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Lawn seed should be sown thickly. Two and one-half 
to four bushels an acre is the amount usually sown. 

To secure a good lawn it is necessary that the land 
be well drained, deeply plowed, and well fertilized. The 
surface should be made smooth before the seed is sown. 

Trees, Shrubs and Vines — As stated before, trees should 
not be scattered upon the lawn. They should be arranged 
at the sides and the rear so as to leave the lawn open. 
A mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees gives a pleas- 
ing effect. Coniferous trees when used alone give a 
melancholy effect. Conifers, however, can be used to 
advantage on slight slopes. 

As a rule, shrubs should not be planted singly. They 
should be arranged in groups. Tall, upright shrubs 
should be placed in the center or in the background, 
and the lower varieties should be arranged so as to hide 
the bare stalks of the larger kinds. Bare stalks should 
not show in group planting; they should be hid by smaller 
shrubs or flowers. 

Groups of shrubs are more pleasing when they are 
made up of several kinds than when each group is made 
up of a single variety. The varieties should not contrast 
too strongly. They must harmonize in the groups. 

A person should have some reason for setting shrubs 
in particular places. If the walk turns, shrubs may be 
placed in the turn. If an unsightly building is to be 
screened, shrubs and vines may be used for that purpose. 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 



269 




Fig. 1 77. Shrubs and Vines May Be Used to 
Screen Unsightly Buildings 



Shrubs are very effec- 
tive when placed in a 
mass near the house. 
Shrubs and vines are 
also artistic when ar- 
ranged in retreating 
corners. Vines are use- 
ful for hiding unsightly 
buildings, for furnish- 
ing shade, and for 
covering old fences. 
Among the perma- 
nent vines, English 
ivy, Japanese honeysuckle, five-fingered ivy, or Virginia 
creeper, and bittersweet are useful. When fast-growing 
vines are desired, annual vines, such as the moonflower, 
morning glory, cypress vine, sweet pea, and wild 
cucumber, may be used 

School Grounds should be models for the community 
to follow. The majority of school grounds in the large 
cities are given considerable care; but in the small towns, 
and in the country, in spite of the fact that nature favors 
the growth of trees, shrubs, and flowers, school grounds 
are frequently neglected. It requires a great deal 
of public spirit upon the part of teachers, pupils, and 
citizens of the community to have attractive school 
grounds. 



270 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



When * 'Arbor Day" is set apart for the beautifying 
of the school premises, lasting results can be secured if 
a definite plan is made beforehand, especially if attention 
is given to the grounds afterwards. Too often the 

planting is done without 
any definite plan. Another 
drawback to the planning 
of beautiful school grounds 
is the size of the ground. 
In the country where one 
would expect to see a large 
lawn and plenty of room, it 
is not uncommon to see a 
schoolhouse situated on 
just a few square rods of 
land which must be used 
as a playground. 

A civic improvement 
society should be organ- 
ized in every school district. 
The purpose of the society should be to plan for the 
improvement of the community in every possible way. 
The pupils of a school can organize a society to beautify 
the school grounds. Try it. 

EXERCISES 
1 . Make simple plans for beautifying your school yard. 
Bring the plans to class for discussion. How can the 



A 




i 





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: h 


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t^ 


^'', 

k^'" 




w*^ 


'*: ^ 


w^ 


V' 'i^ 


ii^w 




-^: ^> 


'''^' :'"' '9 


Wm. 




■ --Si 


m 




-..1 




R''.f '•• 


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Fig. 178. A Portion of a Neat and 
Attractive School Ground 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 271 

grounds be improved? After the plans are discussed in 
class and corrected, place a copy of the best plan in your 
notebook. 

2. Make a plan for beautifying your home grounds. 

3. Observe the planting of trees, shrubs, and vines 
on various grounds. Make diagrams showing the placing 
of those that are satisfactory. How can the planting on 
any of the grounds be improved? Make a drawing 
showing how you would improve some particular ground. 

REFERENCES 

Landscape Gardening, Waugh. 

Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration, Maynard. 

How to Plan the Home Grounds, Parsons. 

The Water Garden, Bisset. 

Lawns and How to Grow Them, Barron. 

Ornamental Gardening for Americans, Long. 

Picturesque Gardens and Ornamental Gardening, Henderson. 

The Landscape Beautiful, Waugh. 

Art Out-of-Doors, Van Rensselaer. 

In God's Out-of-Doors, Quayle. 



272 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER XXXI 

COUNTRY LIFE 

The problem of keeping country boys and girls on the 
farm has been a large one. Many boys leave the farm 
in order to secure the supposed advantages of the city. 
The country boy has not found the chances for progress 
on the farm to be satisfactory. Too often his home has 
been unattractive, his education hampered, his work 
tedious, and social advantages not of the best. He has 
had too little of the right kind of reading matter, and 
too little education along needed lines. Furthermore, 
farming in the past has not been regarded as work that 
required knowledge and skill. 

All this is now changing, but it will be years before 
the advantages of country life are fully appreciated. At 
present there is an awakening in regard to the needs of 
country boys and girls. As it is realized that country 
pupils should have some education along the lines they 
are supposed to follow, the teaching of agriculture and 
home economics is recognized as necessary. 

In many cases schools are improved by combining 
several small districts into one and establishing a large 
central school. Where this is done the children have 
advantages afforded by a city school as well as the pleas- 
ure of living in the country. 



COUNTRY LIFE 



273 



Traveling libraries have done much to supply neces- 
sary reading matter. Rural mail routes enable the 
farmer to receive daily papers, and thus keep up with 
the progress of the world as well as if he lived in town. 
Telephones lessen expenses by saving hours of travel. 




Fig. 179. In the Country There Is Plenty of Fresh Air and Sunshine 

There is a tendency to make farm life more pleasant. 
Beautiful homes, attractive schools, and modern home 
conveniences do much to make farm life more enjoyable. 
Boys and girls on the farm do not realize the disad- 
vantages of city life. In the crowded sections of the 



274 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

larger cities the prevalence of dust and dirt makes life 
disagreeable and unhealthful. In the city there is too 
little room. Whole families live in single rooms in tene- 
ment houses, which are generally dark and poorly venti- 
lated. Under such conditions the health of the people 
is undermined. Children do not have a chance to grow 
up in healthful surroundings. Frequently the only play- 
grounds the children have are the alleys and the streets. 

Of course, a small portion of the population belongs 
to the wealthy class who do not share the disadvantages 
mentioned; but life in the city even at its best has its 
undesirable side. The great complexity of city life 
involves intense competition. Life in the city among 
all classes is one continual struggle. The nervous strain 
is great. Success is uncertain. 

In the country there is plenty of fresh air and sunshine. 
Is it not more pleasant to look upon the fields, the trees, 
and the flowers than to gaze upon city streets flanked with 
massive buildings? Is not the starry sky at night more 
restful to the eye than the glittering lights of the city? 
Is it not more agreeable to hear the song of birds and 
the murmur of the wind in the trees than to listen to 
the confused noises of a city thoroughfare? 

There is a growing realization of the advantages of 
farm life. The tendency for people to drift to the city 
is not so great as formerly. In fact, at present there 
is a tendency to return to the farm. With good roads, 



COUNTRY LIFE 



275 



good telephone service, rural mail delivery, good schools, 
and better prices, farm life has many attractions which 
it has lacked in the past. 




Fig. 180 

It is agreeable to listen to the murmur of the 
wind in the trees 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX 



279 



APPENDIX 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 

Stuffs 

(Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding") 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 


Dry matter 


Feeding 
Stuffs 


(pounds) 


100 


86.8 


10 


8.7 


5 


4.3 


100 


90.1 


10 


9.0 


5 


4.5 


100 


91.1 


10 


9.1 


5 


4.6 


100 


78.8 


10 


7.8 


5 


3.9 


100 


92.3 


10 


9.2 


5 


4.6 


100 


87.1 


10 


8.7 


5 


4.9 


100 


83.4 


10 


8.3 


5 


4.2 


100 


88.7 


10 


8.8 


5 


4.4 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X "ZA) 

(pounds) 




2.8 

0.28 

0.14 

4.90 
0.49 
0.24 

4.80 
0.48 
0.24 

4.80 
0.48 
0.24 

4.5 

0.45 

0.22 

5.90 
0.59 
0.29 

7.90 
0.79 
0.39 

10.80 
1.08 
0.54 



46.8 

4.7 
2.3 

45.7 
4.6 
2.3 

49.3 
4.9 
2.5 

42.1 
4.2 
2.1 

54.8 
5.5 
2.7 

43.8 
0.4 
0.2 

43.7 

4.4 
2.2 

42.3 
4.2 
2.1 



280 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 





. Pounds of 


Dry matter 




Feeding 

Stuffs 


(pounds) 


f 


100 


88.4 




10 


8.8 


1 


5 


4.4 


f 


100 


84.7 




10 


8.4 


1 


5 


4.2 


f 


100 


90.3 




10 


9.0 


1 


5 


4.5 


f 


100 


90.3 


{ 


10 


9.0 


I 


5 


4.5 


f 


100 


90.4 


1 


10 


9.0 


1 


5 


4.5 


f 


100 


91.6 


J 


10 


9.2 


I 


5 


4.6 


f 


100 


89.3 




10 


8.9 


1 


5 


4.5 


f 


100 


91.1 


J 


10 


9.1 


1 


5 


4.5 


f 


100 


38.4 




10 


3.8 


1 


5 


1.9 


f 


100 


34.7 


i 


10 


3.5 


I 


5 


1.7 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 

(pounds) 



Hay—(Cont.) 
Marsh hay 

Red Clover 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea hay 

Oat hay 

Green Fodders 
Timothy grass 



Redtop grass. 



2.40 
0.24 
0.14 

6.80 
0.68 
0.34 

8.40 
0.84 
0.42 

11.50 
1.15 
0.57 

10.50 
1.05 
0.52 

11.00 
1.10 
0.55 

10.80 
1.08 
0.54 

4.30 
0.43 
0.22 



1.2 

0.12 

0.06 

2.1 

0.21 

0.11 



APPENDIX 



281 



TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 
Feeding 

Stuffs 



Dry matter 
(pounds) 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X 2.4) 
(pounds) 



Green Fodders — (Cont.) 
Kentucky blue grass 

Alfalfa (grass) 

Red clover (grass) 

Alsike clover (grass) 

Pasture grasses (mixed) 

Cowpea 

Soja (soy) bean 

Green barley fodder 

Green oat fodder 

Green rye fodder. 



100 
10 
5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 
5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 
5 

100 
10 
5 

100 
10 

5 



34.9 
3.5 
1.7 

28.2 
2.8 
1.4 

29.2 
2.9 
1.5 

25.2 
2.5 
1.2 

20.0 
2.0 
1.0 

16.4 
1.6 
0.8 

24.9 
2.5 
1.2 

21.0 
2.1 
1.1 

37.8 
3.8 
1.9 

23.4 
2.3 
1.2 



3.0 
0.3 
0.15 

3.9 

0.39 

0.19 

2.9 

0.29 

0.14 

2.7 

0.27 

0.13 

2.5 

0.25 

0.13 

1.8 

0.18 

0.09 

3.2 

0.32 

0.16 

1,9 

0.19 

0.09 

2.6 

0.26 

0.13 

2.1 

0.21 

0.11 



21.7 
2.2 
1.1 

13.9 

1.4 
0.7 

16.5 
1.6 

0.8 

14.5 
1.4 
0.7 

11.4 
1.1 
0.6 

9.2 
0.9 
0.5 

12.2 
1.2 
0.6 

11.2 
1.1 
0.6 

21.3 
2.1 
1.1 

15.0 
1.5 
0.7 



282 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 


Dry matter 


Feeding 
Stuffs 


(pounds) 


100 


20.6 


10 


2.0 


5 


1.0 


100 


28.9 


10 


2.9 


5 


1.4 


100 


16.0 


10 


1.6 


5 


0.8 


100 


16.0 


10 


1.6 


5 


0.8 


100 


20.7 


10 


2.0 


5 


1.0 


100 


57.8 


10 


5.8 


5 


2.9 


100 


59.5 


10 


5.9 


5 


2.5 


100 


86.4 


10 


8.6 


5 


4.3 


100 


90.4 


10 


9.0 


5 


4.5 


100 


92.9 


10 


9.2 


5 


4.6 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Green Fodders — (Cont.) 
Green sorghum 

Hungarian grass \ 

Green oats and peas 

f 
Green peas and barley 

Green fodder corn 

Dry Fodder 
Fodder corn (field cured) 

Corn stover (field cured) 

Straw 

Pea vine straw 

I 

Wheat straw . 

Rye straw 



0.6 

0.06 

0.03 

2.0 
0.2 
0.1 

1.8 

0.18 

0.09 

1.7 

0.17 

0.08 

1.0 
0.1 
0.05 

2.5 

0.25 

0.12 

1.7 

0.17 

0.08 

4.3 

0.43 

0.21 

0.4 

0.04 

0.02 

0.6 

0.06 

0.03 



APPENDIX 



283 



TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 


Drv matter 


Feeding 

Stuffs 


(pounds) 


100 


90.8 


10 


9.0 


5 


4.5 


100 


85.8 


10 


8.5 


5 


4.3 


100 


20.9 


10 


2.0 


5 


1.0 


100 


23.9 


10 


2.4 


5 


1.2 


100 


27.5 


10 


2.8 


5 


1.4 


100 


20.7 


10 


2.0 


5 


1.0 


100 


25.8 


10 


2.6 


5 


1.3 


100 


21.0 


10 


2.1 


5 


1.0 


100 


24.0 


10 


2.4 


5 


1.2 


100 


28.0 


10 


2.8 


5 


1.4 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X 2.4) 

(pounds) 



Straw — {Conl.) 
Oat straw 

Barley straw 

Silage 
Corn silage 

Sorghum silage 

Alfalfa silage 

Cowpea vine silage 

Soja-bean silage 

Barnyard millet and soja bean 
silage 

Corn and soja bean silage... 

Clover silage 



1.2 

0.12 

0.06 

0.7 

0.07 

0.03 

0.9 

0.09 

0.04 

0.6 

0.06 

0.03 

3.0 
0.3 
0.15 

1.5 

0.15 

0.07 

2.7 

0.27 

0.13 

1.6 

0.16 

0.08 

1.6 

0.16 

0.08 

2.0 
0.2 
0.1 



40.5 
4.1 
2.0 

42.6 
4.3 
2.1 

13.0 
1.3 
0.6 

15.4 
1.5 
0.8 

13.1 
1.3 
0.6 

10,8 
1.1 
0.5 

11.8 
1.2 
0.6 

10.9 
1.1 
0.5 

14.7 
1.5 
0.7 

15.9 
1.6 
0.8 



284 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 

Feeding 

StuflFs 



Dry matter 
(pounds) 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X 2.4) 

(pounds) 



Concentrates 
Corn (average) 

Corn and cob meal . . . 

Corn bran 

Gluten meal 

Wheat 

Wheat bran 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings. . . . 

Rye 



8.9 
4.5 
0.9 

8.5 
4.2 
0.8 

9.0 
4.5 
0.9 

9.2 
4.6 
0.9 

8.9 
4.5 
0.9 

8.8 
4.4 
0.9 

8.8 
4.4 
0.9 



4.4 
0.9 

8.8 
4.4 
0.9 

8.8 
4.4 
0.9 



0.79 
0.39 
0.08 

0.44 
0.22 
0.04 

0.74 
0.37 
0.07 

2.58 
1.29 
0.26 

1.02 
0.51 
0.10 

1.22 
0.61 
0.12 

1.22 
0.61 
0.12 

1.28 
0.64 
0.13 

0.98 
0.49 
0.10 

0.99 
0.49 
0.10 



7.7 
3.8 
0.8 

6.7 
3.4 
0.7 

7.1 
3.5 
0.7 

6.9 
3.5 
0.7 

7.3 
3.7 
0.7 

4.6 
2.3 
0.5 

5.9 
2.9 
0.6 

6.1 
3.1 
0.6 

56.3 
2.8 
0.6 

7.0 
3.5 
0.7 



APPENDIX 



285 



TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 

Feeding 

Stuffs 



Dry matter 
(pounds) 



Digestible Nutrient- 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Concentrates — ( Cont.) 
Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley 

Malt sprouts 

Brewer's grains (wet) 

Brewer's grains (dried) 

Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat feed and oat shorts. . 

Buckwheat 



4.4 
0.9 

9.0 
4.5 
0.9 

8.9 
4.5 
0.9 

8.9 
4.5 
0.9 

2.4 
1.2 
0.2 

9.2 
4.6 
0.9 

8.9 
4.5 
0.9 

9.2 
4.6 
0.9 

9.23 
4.61 
0.92 

8.7 
4.4 
0.9 



1.15 
0.57 
0.11 

1.19 
0.59 
0.12 

0.87 
0.44 
0.09 

1.86 
0.93 
0.19 

0.39 
0.19 
0.04 

1.57 
0.78 
0.16 

0.92 
0.46 
0.09 

1.15 
0.57 
0.11 

1.25 
0.62 
0.12 

0.77 
0.38 
0.08 



286 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 







Pounds of 

Feeding 

Stuffs 


Dry matter 
(pounds) 


Digestible 


Nutrients 


FEEDING STUFFS 


Protein 
(pounds) 


Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X 4.4) 
(pounds) 


Concentrates — (Cont.) 
Buckwheat bran 


■( 


10 

5 
1 


8.9 
4.5 
0.9 


0.74 
0.37 
0.07 


3.5 
1.7 




0.3 


Buckwheat middlings 


f 
i 


10 


8.7 
4.4 
0.9 


2.2 
1.1 
0.22 


4.6 
2.3 
0.5 


Buckwheat shorts 


1 
'1 


10 


8.9 

4.4 
0.9 


2.11 
1.05 
0.21 


4.7 
2.3 
0.5 


Cottonseed meal . . 


.1 
i 


10 


9.2 
4.6 
0.9 


3.72 
1.86 
0.37 


4.6 
2.3 




0.5 


Flax seed 


1 
■i 


10 


9.0 
4.5 
0.9 


2.06 
1.03 
0.20 


8.7 
4.3 
0.9 


Linseed meal (old process) . . 




10 


9.0 
4.5 
0.9 


2.93 
1.46 
0.29 


4.9 
2.5 
0.5 


Linseed meal (new process). 


f 


10 


8.9 
4.4 
0.9 


2.82 
1.41 
0.28 


4.7 
2.3 
0.5 


Peas 




10 


8.9 
4.4 
0.9 


1.68 
0.84 
0.17 


5.4 
2.7 
0.5 


Soja (soy) bean , . 


■1 


10 


8.9 
4.4 
0.9 


2.96 
1.48 
0.29 


5.7 
2.8 
0.6 


Cowpea 


■1 


10 


8.5 
4.2 
0.8 


1.83 
0.91 
0.18 


5.7 

2.8 
0.6 



APPENDIX 



287 



TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 

Feeding 

Stuffs 



Dry matter 
(pounds) 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X iA) 

(pounds) 



Roots and Tubers 

Potato i 

I 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Beet, mangel 

Carrot 

Rutabaga 

Flat turnip 

Artichoke 



Miscellaneous 



Cabbage 

Sugar beet pulp. 



100 


21.1 


10 


2.1 


5 


1.1 


100 


13.0 


10 


1.3 


5 


0.6 


100 


13.5 


10 


1.4 


5 


0.7 


100 


9.1 


10 


0.91 


5 


0.45 


100 


11.4 


10 


1.1 


5 


0.6 


100 


11.4 


10 


1.1 


5 


0.6 


100 


9.5 


10 


0.9 


5 


0.45 


100 


20.0 


10 


2.0 


5 


1.0 


100 


15.3 


10 


.1.5 


5 


0.7 


100 


10.2 


10 


1.0 


5 


0.5 



0.9 

0.09 

0.05 

1.2 

0.12 

0.06 

1.1 

0.11 

0.05 

1.1 

0.11 

0.05 

0.8 

0.08 

0.04 

1.0 
0.1 
0.05 

1.0 
0.1 
0.05 

2.0 
0.2 
0.1 

1.8 

0.18 

0.09 

0.6 

0.06 

0.C3 



16.2 
1.6 
0.8 

9.0 
0.9 
0.4 

10.4 
1.0 

0.5 

5.6 
0.5 
0.3 

8.3 
0.8 
0.4 

8.6 
0.9 
0.4 

7.7 
0.8 
0.4 

17.3 
1.7 
0.9 

9.2 
0.9 
0.5 

7.3 
0.7 
0.4 



288 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding 
Stuffs — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Pounds of 

Feeding 

Stuffs 



Dry matter 
(pounds) 



Digestible Nutrients 



Protein 
(pounds) 



Carbohy- 
drates and 
(Fats X 2.4) 

(pounds) 



Miscellaneous — (Cont.) 
Sugar beet leaves 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Acorns, fresh -. 

Cow's milk 

Skim milk (separator milk). . 

Buttermilk 



Whey. 



100 
10 

5 

100 

10 

5 

100 
10 

5 

100 
10 

5 

100 

10 

5 

100 

10 

5 

100 
10 
5 

100 
10 
5 



12.0 
1.2 
0.6 

9.1 
0.9 
0.45 

19.2 
1.9 
0.9 

44.7 

4.5 
2.2 

12.8 
1.2 
0.6 

9.4 
0.9 
0.5 

9.9 
1.0 
0.5 

6.6 
0.6 
0.3 



1.7 

0.17 

0.08 

1.0 
0.1 
0.05 

1.4 

0.14 

0.07 

2.1 

0.21 

0.10 

3.6 

0.36 

0.18 

2.9 

0.29 

0.15 

3.9 

0.39 

0.19 

0.8 

0.08 

0.04 



5.1 
0.5 
0.3 

6.5 
0.7 
0.3 

10.2 
1.0 
0.5 

38.5 
3.8 
1.9 

13.8 
1.4 
0.7 

5.9 
0.6 
0.3 

6.6 
0.7 
0.3 

5.4 
0.5 
0.3 



APPENDIX 



289 



TABLE II. Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs 
(Per 1000 pounds) 

(From Henry's "Feeds and Feeding") 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid 


Potash 


(pounds) 


(pounds) 


(pounds) 


18.2 


7.0 


4.0 


14.1 


5.7 


4.7 


16.3 


12.1 


6.8 


50.3 


3.3 


0.5 


38.4 


4.1 


0.3 


23.6 


7.9 


5.0 


26.7 


28.9 


16.1 


28.2 


13.5 


5.9 


26.3 


9.5 


6.3 


24.4 


11.7 


8.4 


17.6 


8.2 


5.4 


23.2 


22.8 


14.0 


18.4 


12.6 


8.1 


15.1 


7.9 


4.8 


35.5 


14.3 


16.3 


8.9 


3.1 


0.5 


36.2 


10.3 


0.9 


20.6 


8.2 


6.2 


17.2 


9.1 


5.3 


5.2 


2.4 


5.2 


14.4 


4.4 


2.1 


4.9 


0.7 


5.2 


36.4 


17.8 


12.8 


42.8 


21.9 


11.4 


36.1 


13.9 


10.3 


54.3 


16.6 


13.7 


57.8 


18.3 


13.9 


31.3 


12.7 


11.7 


67.9 


28.8 


8.7 


30.8 


8.2 


9.9 


53.0 


18.7 


19.0 


4.1 


1.5 


3.3 


17.6 


5.4 


8.9 


10.4 


2.9 


14.0 


9.1 


2.3 


7.5 



Concentrates 

Corn, average 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat 

Wheat bran 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley 

Malt sprouts 

Brewer's grains, wet 

Brewer's grains, dried .... 

Oats 

Oat feed or shorts 

Oat hulls 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat middlings 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process. 
Linseed meal, new process 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed meal 

Peas 

Soja (soy) bean 

Roughage 

Fodder corn, green 

Fodder corn, field cured... 
Corn stover, field cured. . . 
Pasture grasses (mixed) 



290 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE IL Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs 
(Per 1000 pounds) — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid 


(pounds) 


(pounds) 


4.8 


2.6 


4.3 


1.6 


4.9 


1.3 


3.3 


1.5 


2.3 


0.9 


3.9 


1.6 


12.6 


5.3 


13.1 


4.1 


11.5 


3.6 


11.9 


4.0 


12.0 


3.5 


14.1 


2.7 


16.1 


4.3 


23.2 


6.7 


5.9 


1.2 


4.6 


2.8 


6.2 


2.0 


13.1 


3.0 


7.9 


7.0 


5.3 


1.3 


4.3 


1.3 


7.2 


1.3 


2.7 


1.0 


2.9 


1.5 


4.4 


1.1 


20.7 


3.8 


23.4 


6.7 


27.5 


5.2 


20.5 


4.0 


21.9 


5.1 


19.5 


5.2 


17.5 


4.0 


14.3 


3.5 



Roughage (Cont.) 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Oat fodder, green 

Green rye fodder 

Sorghum 

Hungarian grass 

Hay 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky blue grass 

Hungarian grass 

Mixed grasses 

Rowen (mixed) 

Soja bean hay 

Straw 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Barley straw 

Wheat chaff 

Fresh Legumes 

Red clover, green 

Crimson clover, green 

Alfalfa, green 

Cowpea, green 

Soja bean, green 

Alsike clover, green 

Legume Hay and Straw 

Red clover 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja bean straw 

Pea vine straw 



APPENDIX 



291 



TABLE II. Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs 
(Per 1000 pounds) — Continued 



FEEDING STUFFS 



Nitrogen 
(pounds) 



Phosphoric Acid 
(pounds) 



Potash 
(pounds) 



Silage 
Corn silage 

Rools and Tubers 

Potato 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Beet, mangel 

Flat turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage 

Sugar beet leaves 

Pumpkin, garden 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp 

Cow's milk 

Skim milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1.9 
1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 

3.8 

4.1 

1.1 

135.0 

113.9 

77.5 

1.4 

5.3 

5.6 

4.8 

1.5 



1.1 

1.2 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.4 

1.1 
1.5 
1.6 
13.5 
7.0 
120.0 
0.2 
1.9 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 



3.7 

4.6 
4.4 
4.8 
3.8 
3.9 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 
4.7 

4.3 
6.2 
0.9 
7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
1.8 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 



VARIETIES OF FRUIT RECOMMENDED FOR VARIOUS 
SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 

The following lists of varieties of fruits recommended for plant- 
ing are from reports by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. The original information was secured from fruit growers 
in the various districts. Only those varieties which have been 
successfully grown for years are given. Many new varieties are 
not included in the lists. As the districts are large, all varieties 



APPENDIX 293 



of fruit recommended for each district may not succeed equally 
well in all portions of it. 

To find the varieties of fruit suitable for any district, first find 
the number of the district on the map, and then find the number 
in the vertical columns. The letters in the column show what 
qualities make the fruit desirable. For example, "t" indicates 
that the particular variety is desirable for dessert and cooking. 

A comma between two parts of a name indicates that the last 
part is given first. Thus, "Adriatic, White" is the same as White 
Adriatic. When a variety is commonly known by more than one 
name, the names that are less preferable are placed in parentheses. 
The American Pomological Society has recommended the adoption 
of short names as far as possible. The parts of the names in italics 
are eventually to be dropped. 

Varieties of fruit very highly recommended are marked with 
capital letters. 

A ruler or other straight edge, placed across the columns in 
line with the various products, will help facilitate the interpreta- 
tion of the following tables 

KEY 

Recommended for Marked 

Kitchen use a 

Market b 

Dessert c 

Cider d 

Wine e 

Raisins r 

Curing g 

General use h 

Kitchen -and market s 

Kitchen and dessert t 

Market and dessert x 

Kitchen, market, and dessert y 

Cider and kitchen i 

Cider and market n 



294 



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312 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture) 

NOTE 1 — This table presents the common and the technical 
names, with methods of eradication, of some of the common trou- 
blesome weeds found in the United States. 

NOTE 2 — By alternate cultivation and smothering of crops 
is meant clean cultivation during the dry season and a heavy 
seeding of some annual crop, as crimson clover, cowpeas, millet, 
or oats, that will cover the ground thickly cind choke the weeds 
during the growing season. 

KEY: A, Annual; B, Biennial; P, Perennial. 



Common name 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 
seeding 



Methods of 
propa^gation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
eradication 



Barnyard grass, 
barn grass, cocks 
foot 

Black mustard 



Broom rape 



Buffalo bur, beaked 
horse nettle 

Burdock, great dock 



Bull thistle; com- 
mon thistle 



Jur grass; hedgehog 
grass. Rocky 

Mountain sand 
bur, sand bur, 
sand spur 



Panicum crusgalli 



Brassica nigra 



Orobanche ramosa 



Solanum rostra- 
turn 

Arctium lappa 



Carduus lanceo- 
latus 



Cenchrus tribu- 
loides 



July to 
September 



July to 
October 



July to 
September 



July to 
November 



August to 
October 



July to 
N ovember 



July to 
November 



Seeds; in grain 
seed 



Seeds; in grass 
and grain 
seeds 



Seeds 



Seeds; tumble- 
weed 



Seeds; animals 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds; animals 



Prevention of 
seeding 



P revention of 
seeding; culti- 
vated crops 

Clean seed; culti- 
vation of crops 

Heavy seeding; 
close cultivation 



Prevention of 
seeding; grub- 
bing in summer 

Prevention of 
seeding; cutting 
in fall 

Cultivation; burn- 
ing 



APPENDIX 



313 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued 



Common 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 
seeding 



Methods of 
propagation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
Eradication 



Buttonweed, alliga 
tor head 



Canada thistle 



Charlock, wild mus- 
tard, yellow mus- 
tard 

Chess, cheat, wheat 
thief; Willard's 
brome grass 

Chickweed 



Clover dodder, al 
falf a dodder, love 



Cockle, corn cockle, 
rose campion 

Couch grass, quack 
grass, quick grass, 
witch grass, dur- 
fee grass 

Curled dock, yellow 
dock 

Dandehon 



English bindweed, 
morning glory 



False flax, gold of 
pleasure, wild flax 



Field dodder, love 
vine, clover dod- 
der 



Diodia teres 



Carduus arvensis 



Brassica arvensis 



Bromus secalinus 



Alsine media 



Cuscuta epithy- 
mum 



Agrostemma 
githago 

Agropyron repens 



Rumex crispus 



Taraxacum tarax- 
acum 



Convolvulus ar- 
vensis 



Camelina sativa 



Cuscuta arvensis 



July to 
November 



July to 
October 



June to 
October 



August to 
October 



March to 
July 



June to 
November 



July to 
September 

August to 
September 



July to 
October 



May to 
November 



August to 
October 



June to 

August 



July to 
November 



Seeds 



Creeping roots; 
seeds 



Seeds; in grain 
seed 



Seeds; in grain 
seeds 



Seeds; in grass 
seed 

Seeds; in clov- 
er and alfal- 
fa seed 

Seeds; in grain 
seed 

Rootstocks 



Seeds; crown- 
forming root 



Seeds; wind; 
crown-forming 
root 

Seeds; creep- 
ing roots 



Seeds; in flax 
and grain 
seed 

Seeds; in clov- 
er and alfal- 
fa seeds 



Prevention of 
seeding; close 
cultivation 

Alternate cultiva- 
tion and heavy 
cropping 

Prevention of 
seeding; cultiva- 
tion; hoed crops 

Clean seed; culti- 
vation 



Cultivation in fall 
and early spring 



Clean seed; culti- 
vation 



Clean seed; 
vation 



culti- 



\lternate cultiva- 
tion and heavy 
cropping; close 
grazing 

Alternate cultiva- 
tion and heavy 
cropping 

Cultivation; dig- 
ging roots in lawns 



Prevention of 
seeding; late 
cultivation 

P r e v"e n t i o n of 
seeding 



Clean seed; culti- 
vation of crops 
other than clover 



314 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS-Con//nuec/ 



Common name 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 
seeding 



Methods of 
propagation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
eradication 



Great ragweed, 
hogweed 

Hedge bindweed, 
morning-glory 

Horse nettle, bull 
nettle, sand briar 



Horseweed, butter- 
weed, colt's tail, 
fleabane 

Jimson weed, 
Jamestown weed, 
thorn apple 

Manroot, man-of- 
the-earth, morn 
ing glory 



Milk weed, cotton- 
weed, silk weed 



Morning glory 



Moth Mullein 



Narrow-leaved stick 
seed, beggar tick 

Nut sedge, nut 
grass, coco, coco 
sedge 

Ox-eye daisy, bull'; 
eye, white daisy 
whiteweed 



Ambrosia trifida 



Convolvulus sepi- 
um 



Solanum carolin- 
ense 



Leptilon cana- 
dense 



Datura tatula 



Ipomoea pandu 
rate 



Asclepias syriaca 



Ipomoea nil, Ipo 
moea purpurea 



Verbascum blat- 
taria 



Lappula lappula 
Cyperus rotundus 



Chrysanthemum 
leucanthemum 



August to 
October 



August to 
October 

August to 
November 



July to 
October 



August to 
October 



August to 
October 



August to 
September 



August to 
December 



July to 
November 



July to 
October 

August to 
November 



July to 
October 



Seeds 



Seeds; root- 
stocks 

Seeds; running 
roots 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds 



Seeds; root- 
stocks 



Seeds; winds; 
creeping 
roots 



Seeds 



Seeds; in grass 
seed 



Seeds; animals 



Tubers; in nur- 
sery pack- 
ing; seeds 

Seeds; root 
stocks 



Cultivation; 
heavy cropping 

Late cultivation 



Alternate cultiva- 
tion and heavy 
cropping 

Prevent ion of 
seeding; late 
cultivation 

Prevention of 
seeding 



Prevention of 
seeding; killing 
roots with coal 
oil 

Prevention of 
seeding; culti- 
vation; heavy 
cropping 

Prevention of 
seeding; thor- 
ough cultivation 

Sowing clean seed; 
cultivation; 
grubbing in fall 

Sowing clean seed; 
cultivation 

Alternate cultiva- 
tion and smoth- 
ering crops 

Prevention of 
seeding; cultiva- 
tion; application 
of salt 



APPENDIX 



315 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued 



Common name 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 
seeding 



Methods of 
propagation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
eradication 



Passion 
maypop 



Pennycress, French 
weed 

Pigeon grass, fox 
tail, yellow foxtail 

Pigweed, earless 
weed, rough ama 
anth 

Prickly lettuce, 
compass plant 
milkweed, wild 
lettuce 

Prickly pear, cac- 
tus 



Purslane, garden 
purslane, pursely, 
pusley 

Ragweed, bitter- 
weed, hogweed, 
richweed, Roman 
wormwood 

Ribgrass, black 

plantain, buck- 
horn, deer tongue, 
English plantain, 
ripple grass, lame- 
leafed plantain 

Russian thistle, 

Russian cactus, 
Russian saltwort, 
Russian tumble- 
weed 

Shepherd's purse, 
mother's heart, 
tooth wort 



Passiflora incar- 
nata 



Thlaspi arvense 
Setaria glauca 



Amarantus retro 
flexus 



Lactuca scariola 
integrata 



Opuntia humifusa 



Portulaca oleracea 



Ambrosia artemis- 
iaefolia 



Plantago lanceo- 
latae 



Salsola kalitragus 



Bursa bursa-pas- 
toris 



August to 
October 



June to 
December 

July to 
November 

August to 
November 



July to 
November 



July to 
December 



June to 
December 



August to 
November 



July to 
November 



August to 
November 



May to 
December 



Seeds 



Seeds, wind 



Seeds; in clov 
'T seed 

Seeds 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds; animals 



Seeds 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds; crown 
forming 
roots 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds 



Thorough cultiva- 
tion; prevention 
of seeding 

Burning; thorough 
cultivation 

Burning; thorough 
cultivation 

Prevention of 
seeding; thor- 
ough cultivation 

Prevention of 
seeding; burning 



Permitting grass 
to grow and 
burning 

Closer cultivation 



Prevention of 
seeding; burning 



Clean seed; culti 
vation 



Cultivation; graz- 
ing; mowing for 
hay; burning 



Cultivation 



316 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS-Coniinued 



Common 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 
seeding 



Methods of 
propagation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
eradication 



Small carrot, bristly 
carrot, southern 
wild carrot 

Smartweed, swamp 
persicaria, shoe- 
strings 

Sorrel, field sorrel, 
horse sorrel, red 
sorrel, sheep sor- 
rel, sourweed 

Sow thistle, field 
sow thistle, pe- 
rennial sow this- 
tle 

Spanish needles, bur 
marigold, beggar 
ticks 

Spring cocklebur, 
Bathurst bur, 
Chinese thistle, 
dagger cocklebur 

Squirrel tail, foxtail 
wild barley 



Star thistle, Texas 
thistle 



Stubble spurge, 

spotted spurge 



Tarweed 



Toad flax, butter- 
and-eggs, impu- 
dent lawyer, ram- 
stead, snapdragon 

Trefoil, black med- 
ic, nonesuch 



Daucus pusillus 



Polygonum am- 
phibium emer- 
sum 

Rumex acetosella 



Sonchus arvensis 



Bidens bipinnata 



Xanthium spino- 
sum 



Hordeum jubatum 



Centaurea ameri- 
cana 



Euphorbia nutans 
Madia sativa 
Linaria linaria 

Medicago lupulina 



July to 

August 



August to 
September 



June to 
November 



August to 
November 



July to 
November 



August to 
November 



July to 
October 



July to 
September 



August to 
November 



June to 
November 



August to 
November 



April" to 
December 



Seeds; ani 

mals; wind 



Seeds; root- 
tocks 



Seed; in clover 
seed; root- 

stocks 



Seeds; wind; 
creeping 
roots 



Seeds; animals 



Seeds: animals 



Seeds; wind; 
animals 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds 



Seeds; animals 



Root-stocks; 
seeds 



Seeds; in clov- 
r seed 



Cultivation ; pre- 
vention of seed- 
ing 

Prevention of 

seeding; culti- 
vation 

Cultivation; 
smothering crops 



Thorough cultiva- 
tion and smoth- 
ering crops 



Prevention of 
seeding 



Prevention of 

seeding; cultiva- 
tion 



Prevention of 

seeding; culti- 
vation 

Prevention of 
seeding; culti- 
vation 

Prevention of 
seeding; burn- 
ing stubble 

Prevention of 

seeding; burn- 
ing 

Cultivation; heavy 
cropping 



Clean seed; culti- 
vation 



APPENDIX 



317 



TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued 



Common name 



Technical name 



Dura- 
tion 



Time of 

seeding 



Methods of 
propagation 
and distribu- 
tion of seed 



Methods of 
eradication 



Tumbleweed, pig- 
weed 

Wild buckwheat, 
black bindweed 

Wild carrot, bird's 
nest. Queen 

Anne's lace 

Wild gourd, cala- 
bazita 

Wild oats 



Wild garlic, field 
garlic, crow gar- 
lic, wild onion 



Wild parsnip 



Yellow daisy 

brown-eyed Su- 
san, cane flower, 
niggerhead, ox- 
eye daisy 

Yellow dock, bitter 
dock, broad- 

leaved dock 



Yellow dog fennel, 
bitter-weed 



Yellow melilot, yel- 
low sweet clover 



Amaranthus grae- 
cizans 

Polygonum con- 
volvulus 

Daucus carota 



Cucurbita peren 
nis 



Avena fatua 



Allium vineale 



Pastinaca sativa 



Rudbeckia hirta 



Rumex obtusifo- 
lius 



Helenium, tenui- 
folium 



Melilotus ofEci 
nalis 



August to 
October 



July to 
October 



July to 
November 



June to 
September 



July to 
September 



August to 
September 



July to 
October 



July to 

September 



August to 
October 



August to 
November 



July to 
October 



Seeds; wind 



Seeds; wind; 
animals 



Seeds; ani- 
mals; wind 



Seeds 



Seeds; 
oats 



seed 



Bulblets; seeds 



Seeds 



Seeds 



Seeds 



Seed 



Seeds; in hay 
and clover 
seed 



Prevention of 
seeding; burning 

Sowing clean seed; 
cultivation 

Grubbing in fall; 
cultivating 



Killing the roots 
with coal oil 

Sowing clean seed; 
burning; pas- 
turing 

Alternate cultiva- 
tion and heavy 
cropping 

Prevention of 

seeding; cultiva- 
tion 

Prevention of 
seeding; culti- 
vation 



Prevention of 
seeding; culti- 
vation 



Prevention of 
seeding; culti- 
vation 

Cultivation; in- 
creased fertili- 
zation 



318 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 

(United States Department of Agriculture) 

STANDARD BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

Copper sulphate (bluestone) 6 pounds 

Lime 4 pounds 

Water to make 50 gallons 

This mixture often injures the foliage of the peach and the 
Japanese plum, and sometimes russets the fruits of apples and 
pears. 

THE 5-5-50 BORDEAUX MIXTURE FORMULA 

Copper sulphate 5 pounds 

Lime 5 pounds 

Water to make 50 gallons 

When this mixture is used there is less danger of scorching or 
russeting the fruit than when the "Standard Mixture" is used. 

PEACH BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

Copper sulphate 3 pounds 

Lime 9 pounds 

Water to make 50 gallons 

This form of Bordeaux mixture is more harmless to the foliage 
on account of the excess of lime. 

DUST BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

(1) Dissolve 4 pounds of copper sulphate in 4 gallons of water. 

(2) Dissolve 4 pounds of lime in 4 gallons of water. 

(3) Prepare 60 pounds of slaked lime dust. The lime dust is 

best prepared by slowly sprinkling a small quantity of 
water over a heap of quicklime, using barely enough water 
to cause the lime to crumble into a dust. 



APPENDIX 319 



The first two solutions should be poured together into a tub. 
Allow the resulting precipitate to settle, decant off the liquid, 
pour the wet mass of material into a double flour sack, and squeeze 
out as much water as possible. Spread out the doughlike mass 
in the sun to dry. Then crumble the material into a powder, 
and screen the powder through a sieve of brass wire having 80 
meshes to the inch. Finally mix the powder with the slaked 
lime dust. 

COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION 

Copper sulphate 3 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The manner of making this solution is the same as for the Bor- 
deaux mixture, except that lime is not added. This solution is 
very injurious to plants in foliage; therefore it should be applied 
only during the dormant period. 

COPPER ACETATE SOLUTION 

Dibasic acetate of copper 6 ounces 

Water 50 gallons 

Add the acetate of copper to the water and stir thoroughly. 
Although this mixture is much inferior to the Bordeaux mixture 
as a fungicide, it can be applied to ripening fruit without the 
staining effect of the latter. The copper acetate solution is injuri- 
ous to the foliage. 

AMMONIACAL COPPER CARBONATE 

Copper carbonate 5 ounces 

Strong ammonia (26° Baume) 2 to 3 pints 

Water to make 50 gallons 



320 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

( 1 ) Dilute the ammonia with about two gallons of water in order 

to increase the solvent action of the ammonia upon the 
copper carbonate. 

(2) Add water to the carbonate to make a thin paste. 

(3) Pour on about half of the diluted ammonia, stir vigorously 

for several minutes, allow it to settle, pour off the liquid, 
leaving the undissolved copper salt behind. Repeat the 
operation until all the salt is dissolved. 
(3) Add the remainder of the water to make 50 gallons. 

This mixture is inferior to the Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide. 
It is used as a substitute for Bordeaux mixture when stains upon 
ornamental plants and maturing fruits are objectionable. Plants 
susceptible to injury from the Bordeaux mixture are also likely 
to be injured by the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. 

EAU CELESTE (MODIFIED) 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds 

Ammonia 3 pints 

Sal soda 5 pounds 

Water to^ make 45 gallons 

Dissolve the copper sulphate in 10 or 12 gallons of water, add 
the ammonia and dilute to 45 gallons; then add the sal soda and 
stir until dissolved. Eau celeste is an effective dormant spray for 
the peach leaf-curl and other similar diseases, but it is unsafe 
to use on the foliage of most plants 

LIME-SULPHUR WASH 

The following formula may be used: 

Unslaked lime 20 pounds 

Flowers of sulphur 15 pounds 

Water to make 45 to 50 gallons 



APPENDIX 321 



The lime should be slaked in a small quantity of water. The 
sulphur should be mixed into a stiff paste and added to the lime 
which has been slaked. The mixture should then be boiled for 
an hour, after which the full amount of cold water can be added, 
The mixture should be strained and used at once. This mixture, 
which is much used for scale insects, should be applied just before 
the buds open. 

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE 

Sulphur 10 pounds 

Lime 10 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Place the lime in a barrel and add enough water to start it 
slaking and to keep the sulphur off the bottom of the barrel. Add 
the sulphur, which should first be worked through a sieve to break 
up the lumps, and finally add enough water to slake the lime into 
a paste. Considerable stirring is necessary to prevent caking at 
the bottom. After the violent boiling which accompanies the 
slaking of the lime is over, the mixture should be diluted ready 
for spraying, or at least enough cold water added to stop the 
cooking. The mixture should then be strained to remove the 
coarse particles of lime, but all of the sulphur should be worked 
through the sieve. 

This mixture is not injurious to peach foliage. 

SULPHUR AND RESIN SOLUTION 

Sulphur (flowers or flour) 16 pounds 

Resin (finely powdered) H pound 

Caustic soda (powdered) 10 pounds 

Water to make 6 gallons 



322 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

(1) Place the sulphur and the resin, thoroughly mixed, in a 

barrel and make a thick paste by adding about 3 quarts 
of water. 

(2) Stir in the caustic soda. After several minutes the mass 

will boil, turning a reddish brown, and should be stirred 
thoroughly. 

(3) After boiling has ceased add about 2 gallons of water and 

pour off the liquid into another vessel. Then add water 
to make 6 gallons. This form of stock solution should be 
used at the rate of 1 gallon to 50 of water for spraying 
most plants and for soaking seeds. 

POTASSIUM SULPHID 

Potassium sulphid 1 ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

Dissolve the potassium sulphid in the required amount of water 
and use immediately. This mixture is effective for surface mildews. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE 

Corrosive sublimate 1 part 

Water 1000 parts 

This solution is used to disinfect tools used in cutting out pear 
blight. 

PARIS GREEN 

For general purposes: 

Paris green 1 pound 

Water 50 to 100 gallons 

For pome fruits and grapes : 

Paris green 1 pound 

Water 150 to 200 gallons 



APPENDIX 323 



Milk of lime from slaking three pounds of lime for each 50 gallons 
of spray should be added. 

Paris green may be added to Bordeaux mixture. In that case 
no lime will need to be added, as the Bordeaux mixture contains 
lime. 

ARSENATE OF LEAD 

Arsenate of lead may be applied at the rate of 2, 3, or 4 pounds 
for every 50 gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture. It is advisable 
to add lime water when the arsenate of lead is used with water. 

SCHEELE'S GREEN 
Scheele's green is used the same as Paris green. 

HELLEBORE 

Hellebore may be applied dry, diluted with from 5 to 10 parts 
of flour, or with water at the rate of one ounce to the gallon. 

Hellebore acts as an internal poison to insects, but is harmless 
to man in the quantities recommended. 

WHALE-OIL SOAP WASH 

For aphides and pear psylla: Dissolve 1 pound of soap in 3 
or 4 gallons of water. 

For scale insects: Dissolve 2 gallons of soap in 1 gallon of 
water, and apply when the trees are dormant. 

MISCIBLE OILS 

Step 1. Preparation of the emulsifier — In preparing the emul- 
sifier an iron kettle provided with a board cover and a thermom- 
eter should be used. The formula for the emulsifier is as follows: 



324 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Menhaden oil 10 gallons 

Carbolic acid 8 gallons 

Caustic potash 15 pounds 

This is heated to 290° or 300° F. and then the following are 
added: 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Water 2 gallons 

The kerosene is added while the mixture is at the high tempera- 
ture, but the water must not be added until the mixture has 
cooled below the boiling point. 

Step 2. Mixing the emulsifier and the oils — No heat is required 
in the mixing of the emulsifier with petroleum or other oils. The 
emulsifier may be used with kerosene or with crude petroleum, 
with or without the addition of resin or other oils. The following 
is easily made and is efficient as a spray while trees are dormant: 

Emulsifier 3 2-3 gallons 

Paraffin oil 40 gallons 

Resin oil 6 gallons 

Sufficient water to give a ready emulsion. 
From 3 to 5 gallons of the miscible oil are used to make 50 
gallons of spray. 

TOBACCO SOLUTION 

Tobacco solutions must be strong in order to make an effective 
spray. One pound of tobacco should be steeped in each gallon 
of water. This solution is effective as a spray against aphides 
and thrips. 

LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY CALENDAR FOR APPLES 

The first spraying for San Jose scale and other pests should 
be made while the buds are dormant with full strength lime-sulphur 



APPENDIX 



325 



wash (1 part to 9); the second when the leaf buds unfold, but with 
dilute wash (I to 33). Subsequent sprayings the same as with 
Bordeaux mixture. All sprayings of the foliage should be with 
dilute wash. 

BORDEAUX SPRAY CALENDAR FOR APPLES 



Number 
of application 


Material 


Time of application 


First 

Second 
Third 

Fourth 


Bordeaux mixture and arsenical 

Bordeaux mixture and arsenical 
Bordeaux mixture and arsenical 

Half-strength Bordeaux mixture 
and full-strength arsenical 


After leaf buds unfold and before 
flower buds open 

Just after petals fall 

7 or 8 days later. (This may be 
omitted in dry seasons, and in 
dry States.) 

3 weeks later 



Exhibitor: 
Address: 



SCORE CARD FOR MARKET MILK 

(United States Department of Agriculture) 



NUMERICAL SCORE 



Flavor, 40 



Composition, 25 



Bacteria, 20 



Acidity, 5 



Appearance of 
package and 
contents, 1 



Perfect score. 100 



Judge' 



326 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



DESCRIPTIVE SCORE 



Composition 



Bacteria 



Acidity 



Package and 
contents 



Excellent 

Good 

Fair 

Bad 

Flat 

Bitter 

Weedy 

Garlic 

Silage 

Manure 

Smothered 

Other taints 



Perfect 

Fat, — 
cent. 



per 



Perfect 
Total, - 



Perfect 
per cent. 



Solids not fat, 
per cent. 



Liquefiers, 



Perfect 

Foreign mat- 
ter 

Metal parts 

Unattractive 



Remarks: 

Date: , Judie. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 
Flavor 

If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect 
(40). Deduct for objectionable flavors and odors according to 
conditions found. 

Composition 

If 3.25 per cent, fat or above and 8.5 per cent, solids not fat 
or above, score perfect (25). Deduct 1 point for each one-fourth 
per cent, fat below 3.25 and 1 point for each one-fourth per cent, 
solids not fat below 8.5. 

Bacleria 

Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter (perfect). . 20 

Over 10,000 and less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter.... 19 



APPENDIX 327 



Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter... 18 

Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter.... 17 

Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 

Deduct 1 point for each 25,000 above 100,000. 

When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are 
present, further deduction should be made according to conditions 
found. 

Acidity 
If 0.2 per cent, or below, score perfect (5). Deduct 1 point 
for each 0.01 per cent, above 0.2 per cent. (If Mann's test is 
used, discontinue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink 
color.) 

Appearance of Package and Contents 
If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter 
can be detected in the contents, score perfect (10). Make deduc- 
tions for conditions found. 

SCORE CARD FOR SANITARY INSPECTION OF DAIRIES 

(United States Department of Agriculture) 

[Face of Card] 

Owner or lessee of farm 

Town State 

Total number of cows Number milking 

Quarts of milk produced daily Product is 

sold at wholesale retail. Name and address of dealer to whom shipped 



Permit No Date of inspection , 191. 

Remarks 



DETAILED SCORE— [Back of Card] 



Equipment 



Perfect Allowed 



Score 



COWS 

Condition 

Health (outward appearance) 

Comfort 

Bedding 2 

Temperature of stable 1 

Protected yard 1 

Cubic feet of space per cow: 
Over 300, 2; over 400, 4; 

500 to 1,000, 6 

Feed 

Water 

Clean 6 

Fresh 2 

STABLE 

Location 

Well drained 3 

Free from contaminat- 
ing surroundings... 3 

Construction 

Tight, sound floor 3 

Gutter 1 

Stall, stanchion, tie.. 1 
Low-down manger ... 1 
Smooth, tight walls. . 1 
Smooth, tight ceiling. 2 

Box stall 1 

Light: 1 sq. ft. glass per 
cow, 2; 2 sq. ft., 4; 3 sq. 
ft., 6; 4 sq. ft., 8; even 

distribution, 2 . 

Ventilation: Sliding win- 
dows, 2; hinged at bot- 
tom, 4; King system or 

muslin curtain, 8 

Stable yard (drainage) 

MILK ROOM 

Location 

Convenience 2 

Free from contaminat- 
ing surroundings. . . 4 

Construction 

Floor 1.5 

Walls and ceilings 1 

Light 5 

Ventilation 5 

Screens 5 

Arrangement 

Equipment 

Hot water or steam.. 2 

Cooler ... .. 2 

Narrow-top milk pail 1 

Other utensils 1 

Water supply for utensils.. 

Clean 6 

Convenient 2 

Abundant 2 

Milking suits 



Total. 



100 



Methods 



Perfect Allowed 



COWS 
Cleanliness 



STABLE 

Cleanliness 

Floor 

Walls 

Ceiling 

Ledgi 



4 

2 

2 

1 

Mangers and parti- 
tions 1 

Windows . 1 

No other animals in 

stable 1 

Stable air 

Removal of manure 

To field or proper pit 4 

30 feet from stable . . 2 

Cleanliness of stable yard. . 

MILK ROOM 

Cleanliness 

Care and cleanliness of 

utensils 

Inverted in pure air 2 
Clean (superficially) 4 
SteriUzed 4 

MILKING 

Cleanliness 

Clean, dry hands ... 4 
Udders washed and 

dried 10 

Cleaned with moist 

cloth 8 

Cleaned with dry 
cloth 4 

CARE OF MILK 

Cooling 

Removed from stable 
immediately after 
milking each cow 
and promptly 

cooled 10 

Cooled to 50° F. or 

below 10 

51° to 55° F 8 

56° to 60° F 6 

Storing 

Below 50° F 8 

51° to 55° F 6 

56° to 60° F 4 

Transportation 

Iced in summer 10 

Jacket or wet blanket 

in summer 8 

Dry blanket 4 

Covered wagon 2 



Total. 



(328) 



APPENDIX 329 



Score of methods multiplied by 2— . . . . 

Score of equipment multiplied by 1 = . . . . 

Total divided by 3= . . . . final score. 

Note — Deductions may be made for exceptionally bad conditions. 

Note — If the herd has not been tuberculin tested within a year, the limit for the score 
will be 80. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



333 



INDEX 



(Italicized figures refer to exercises) 



Aberdeen Angus Cattle, 165 

Acid soils, 53 

Agents of soil formation, 1 

Air, effect on germination, 6S; nitrogen in, 

50, 55 
Alfalfa, 55 

Alkali salts, 13, H, 30, 37 
American saddle horse, 199 
American trotter, 199 
Ammonia, 74 
Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution, 133; 

formula, 319 
Animals in soil, 6 
Annual plants, 118 
Annual rings, 84 
Anther, 89 
Ants, 5 
Aphis, 130 
Appendix, 279-329 
Apple, 123-134; soil suitable for, 123; 

varieties, 123, 294-297; planting and 

pruning, 124; insect enemies of, 124-132; 

tree borer, 125-127; tent caterpillar, 128; 

fall web worm, 128; canker worm, 129; 

aphis, 130; woolly aphis, 130; leaf roller, 

131; tree diseases, 132-134; blight, 132; 

bitter rot, 133, 134; scab, 134; leaf spot, 

134; spray calendar, 325 
Apricots, varieties for different sections, 303 
Arsenate of lead, formula, 323 
Ashes, 5It, 142 
Asparagus, 13 
Ayrshire cattle, 161-162 

Bacteria, in legumes, 50, 55, 57; in soil, 7, 

26; in milk, 170 
Bacterial diseases, 115 
Baking of soils, 11, SI, 22 
Balanced rations, 187-190, 191, 192; for 

dairy cow, 188; for horses, 203; for sheep, 

211; for swine, 217 
Bark, 83 
Barley smut, 117 
Barn grass, 119 
Barnyard manure, 11, 12, 20, 50, 52, 53, 

59, 60, 157 
Beam-wheel, 44 
Bean, 55, 57, 65 
Beautifying home and school grounds, 261- 

271 
Beef tvpe of cattle, 162 
Bees, 230-237, 237-23S; kinds of, 230, 231; 



bee cells, 231, 232; development of young, 
232; swarming, 234, 235; races of, 236, 
237; wintering, 237 

Beets, 54 

Begonias, 97, 103 

Belgian draft horse, 196 

Berkshire pigs, 213 

Biennial plants, 118-119 

Birds, 125, 130, 239-243; 21t3-2U; classes of, 
241-242; enemies of, 242; means of pro- 
tection, 242; bird calendar, 243 

Biting insects, 113 

Bitter rot, 133-134 

Blackberries, varieties, 311 

Blackbirds, 241 

Black knot, 139 

Black spot of peach, 136 

Blight, fire or pear, 115; leaf, 132; twig, 132 

Blue stone, 74 

Bordeaux mixture, 116-117, 132, 133, 134, 
136, 139; formula, 318; spray calendar, 325 

Borer, apple tree, 125-127; peach, 135 

Brahmas, 220 

Branches, methods of pruning, 109 

Breeds; chickens, 218-222; horses, 194-200; 
live stock, 158; swine, 213-215 

Brooders, 225 

Brown rot, 139 

Brown Swiss Cattle, 162 

Budding, 100-102 

Buildings on the farm, 261-263 

Burdock, 119 

Butter, 173-178; coloring, 175; churning, 
175; working, 177-178; packing, 178 

Calcareous soils, 13 

Calcium, 49 

Calendar, sprav, 324-325 

Calyx, 88 

Cambium layer, 84, 99, 100 

Camembert cheese, 181-182 

Canada thistle, 119 

Cane sugar test, 74 

Canker, 133-134 

Canker worm, 129 

Capacity of soils for moisture, 18 

Capillary water, 16-17, 20, 22, ^5 

Carbohydrates, 187 

Carbon, 49, 86 

Care of horses, 200-203 

Carnations, 97 

Carniolan bees, 236 



334 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Carrots, 5i 

Casein, 167, 168 

Caterpillar, tent, 128 

Cattle, 159-166; Jersey, 159-160; Guernsey. 
160-161; Ayrshire, 161-162; Holstein, 162; 
Brown Swiss, 162; Devon, 166; Dutch 
Belted, 162; Polled Durham, 164; Red 
Polled, 162; Shorthorn, 162, 164; Beef 
type, 162; Dairy type, 159; good and bad 
feeders, 163; Hereford, 164; Galloway, 165; 
Aberdeen Angus, 165; feeding standards 
for, 192 

Caucasian bees, 236 

Caulicle, 65, 70, 92 

Check method of irrigating, 36 

Cheddar cheese, 179-181 

Cheese, 178-185, ISIi; kinds of, 178; Cheddar, 
179-181; test for curd, 181; Camembert, 
181-182; Roquefort, 182; Limburger, 182; 
Dutch, 182 

Cherry, 136-137, 139, HO, 303-304 

Chester White hogs, 215 

Cheviot sheep, 209 

Chickadee, 241 

Chickens, 218-225; breeds of, 218-222; care 
of, 222-225; feeding, 224-225 

Chlorin, 49 

Chlorophyll, 86, 87 

Chrysanthemums, 97 

Churns, 175, 177 

Civic improvement societies, 270 

Classes of; birds, 241-242; cattle, 159; foods, 
186-187; insects, 113-114; sheep, 206; 
soils, 10-14, H-lo; weeds, 118 

Clay, 11, 12, 13, H, 20, 21-^2, 42, 46 

Cleft grafting, 99 

Cleveland bay horse, 200 

Clevis, 45 

Clover, 51, 57; on poor soils, 57 

Clover seed, 69 

Coach horses, 199-200 

Cobalt nitrate, 74 

Cochins, 220 

Cocoon, 113, 120, 125 

Codling moth, 124, 125, UO 

Coloring matter in butter, 175 

Comb foundation, 230 

Commercial fertilizers, 51, 52 

Composition of milk, 167-168 

Composition of soils, 15 

Concentrated milk, 172 

Condensed milk, 171-172 

Conditions necessary for germination, 67, 69 

Conifers, 268 

Conservation of soil moisture, 20, 45, 37, 53 

Contamination of milk, 168-170 

Copper acetate solution, formula, 319 

Copper sulphate solution, 74; formula, 319 

Corn, 66, 68, 76, 77, 78, 79 

Corolla, 88, 89 

Corrosive sublimate solution, 115, 132; 
formula, 322 



Cost of feeding, 190 

Cost of roads, 258-259 

Cotswold sheep, 209 

Cotyledons, 65, 72 

Country life, 272-275 

Cow thistle, 119 

Crab apples, varieties, 302 

Cream, separation of , 174-175; ripening of, 175 

Crop rotation, 59-62, 62-6 Jf; kinds of, 61; 

examples of, 61 
Cross pollination, 91 
Crows, 240 
Cuckoo, 241 
Cultivation, 46, 60 
Curculio, 137, 1^0 
Curd test, 181 

Currants, 96, 97, 102; varieties, 311 
Cuttings, 96-97, IDS 
Cyprian bees, 237 
Cyrian bees, 237 

Dairying, effect on soil, 58-59 

Dairy type of cow, 159 

Dairy score card, 327-329 

Dandelion, 119 

Decaying plants, 7 

Deep tillage, i7 

Delaine, 207 

Depressed bed system of irrigation, 36 

Depth to plant seeds, 70-71 

Depth to plow, 44 

Devon cattle, 166 

Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, 273-288 

Diseases; bacterial, 115; fungous, 115; of 
apple, 132-134; of orchard, HO 

Division box, 34 

Dorset, horned, 208 

Draft horses, 194-197 

Drainage, 25-29, 29-31; importance of, 25; 
benefits of, 25-26; need of, 26; kinds of, 
27-29; open drains, 27-28; tile drains, 
28-29; underground drains, 28-29; of irri- 
gated lands, 37; in road building, 251 

Drives, 266 

Drone bees, 233 

Drone cells, 231 

Dry farming, 20 

Ducks, 227 

Durham cattle, 164 

Duroc- Jersey hogs, 214 

Dust Bordeaux mixture, formula, 318 

Dutch Belted cattle, 162 

Dutch cheese, 182 

Ears of corn, 77 
Earth roads, 254-256 
Earthworms, 5, 8 
Eau Celeste, formula, 320 
Egg breeds of chickens, 218-219 
Eggs of insects, 112, 114 
Elements, in plants, 49; removed from the 
soil by crops, 64 



INDEX 



335 



Embryo, 65 

Emulsion, kerosene, 11-1 

Enemies; of birds, iii; of plants, lb2-120, 

English Shire horse, 196 

English sparrow, '2-i'-2 

English type of landscape gardening, 265 

Evaporation, 16, 20, £J, i6 

Excessive irrigation, 37 

Exhaustion of soil, 58-62, 6^2-6i 

Exogenous stem, 83-85 

Fall plowing, 43-44 

Fall web worm, 128 

Farm buildings, 261-263 

Farm implements, 245-247, 2^7, 248, 2^9 

Farm stock, 157-158 

Farm tools, 245-247, 2^7, 248, 2^9 

Farm woodlot, 154 

Fats, 187; test for, 75, 173-174 

Feeding standards; for cattle, 192; for horses, 
204; for sheep, 210; for swine, 215; for 
chickens, 224-225 

Feeding stuffs, 279-288; manurial value of, 
190; fertilizing constituents in 289-291 

Feeding the stock, 186-187 

Feeds, cost of, 190 

FertiHzation; of flowers, 90; of soils, 10-13, 
49-53, 53-5^, 56, 63, 135, 141-142, 146, 157 

Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs, 
289-291 

Fibrous roots, 83 

Figs, 13; varieties, 308 

Filament, 89 

Film water, 17, 23 

Fine-wooled breeds, 206-207 

Fire blight, 115 

Fires in forests, 149 

Fixed nitrogen, 51 

Flat-headed apple tree borer, 125-127 

Flooding system of irrigation, 36 

Flower, 87-92 

Flycatchers, 242 

Foods, classes of, 186-187; for plants, 49-53, 
53-5A; in roots, 82-83; in seeds, 71-75; in 
stems, 85; manufactured in leaves, 86-87 

Forests, 149-156; value of, 149; destruction 
of, 149; preservation of, 150-154; fires in, 
149; planting, 156 

Formalin solution, 117 

Formation of soil, 1-7, 7-9 

Formulas; insecticides and fungicides, 318- 
325; Paris green, 113; kerosene emulsion, 
114; corrosive sublimate solution, 115, 132; 
Bordeaux mixture, 116; formalin solution, 
117; miscible oils, 132; lime-sulphur wash, 
132; ammoniacal copper carbonate solu- 
tion, 133; tobacco decoction, 145 

Foundation of roads, 251 

Free nitrogen, 50 

Free water, 16, 22 

French coach horse, 199 



French draft horse, 195 

French merino, 207 

Frost, 8 

Fruit, 123-140, 141-146, 1^0, H6-U8; vari- 
eties for different sections, 291-311; effect 
of potash on, 52 j 

Fuchsias, 97 

Fungicides, 109, 117; formulas, 318-325 

Fungous diseases, 115-117 

Furrow system of irrigating, 37 

Galloway cattle, 165 

Gases in air and water, 7 

Geese, 227 

General purpose breeds, 221-222 

Geometrical type of landscape gardening, 265 

Geraniums, 97 

German coach horse, 200 

Germination, 29, 45, 65-78, 78-79 

Glacier, 3, 8 

Glucose test, 74 

Gooseberries, 96, 97, 102; varieties, 309 

Gouger, plum, 138 

Grafting, 98-100, 103; cleft, 99; whip, 100; 

root, 100 
Grape fruit, varieties, 308 
Grape sugar test, 74 
Grapes, varieties, 304-306 
Grapevines, 96, 97, 102 
Greenhouse plants, 97 
Green manuring, 11, 12, 20, 22 
Ground water, 16 
Grouse, 241 
Growth; of insects, 112-113; of roots, 92; 

of stem, 83-84, 93 
Guernsey cattle, 160-161 

Hackney horse, 200 

Hamburgs, 219 

Hampshire Down sheep, 209 

Harrowing, 45 

Hawks, 239 

Heat; effect on soil, 4; effect on germination, 
67 

Heavy soils, 10 

Hellebore, formula, 323 

Hereford cattle, 164 

Hives for honey bees, 230 

Hogs, 212-216, 217; feeding standards fur, 
215; rations for, 217 

Holstein cattle, 162 

Home grounds, 261-270, 270-271 

Honey bees, 230-237, 237-238 

Honey cells, 231 

Horned Dorset sheep, 208 

Horses, 194-203, ^^rt.,'-^O.J, -origin of, 194; breeds 
of, 194-200; draft type, 194-197; roadster 
type, 197-199; coach, 199-200; care of, 
200-203; feeding, 200-202; shoeing, 202; 
feeding standards for, 204; rations for, 203 

Hotbed, 103 

Houdans, 222 



336 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Humus, 11, 12, 13, lit, 20, 53, 59 
Hydrogen, 49 
Hygroscopic water, 17, 23 

Ice sheet, 3, 8 

Imperfect flower, 90 

Implements, 245-247, 2^7, £i9 

Improvement of, country life, 272-275; 
plants, 75-77; soils, 11-12; roads, 250-259, 
259'S60 

Impurities in seeds, 69 

Incubators, 225 

Inoculation; of legumes, 56; of the soil, 57 

Insecticides, formulas, 318-325 

Insects, 112-115, ISO; growth of, 112-113; 
classes, 113-114; biting, 113; methods of 
destroying, 113-114; as enemies of the 
apple, 124, 125; apple tree borer, 125-127; 
tent caterpillar, 128; fall web worm, 128; 
canker worm, 129; aphis, 130; leaf rollers, 
131; scale insects, 131-132; insects affecting 
the strawberry, 145; root louse, 145 

InsufBciect rainfall, 19 

Iodine test for starch, 73-74 

Irrigation, 19, 33-37, 37-40 

Italian bees, 237 

Italian type of landscape gardening, 265 

Jack pine lands, 57 
Jersey cattle, 159-160 

Kakis, varieties, 306 

Kernels, 77 

Kerosene emulsion, 114 

Ladybug, 130 

Lakes, use in irrigation, 33 

Land plaster, 53 

Landscape gardening, 263-265 

Langshans, 221 

Langstroth hives, 230 

Lap-furrow plowing, 42 

Large Yorkshire hogs, 214 

Lark, 241 

Larva, 112, 125, 137, 141 

Larvae of bees, 232 

Lawns, 266-268 

Lavering, 96, 102 

Lekf blight, 132-133, 139 

Leaf cuttings, 97, 103 

Leaf rollers, 131, 145 

Leaf spot diseases, 134 

Leaves, 85-87 

Leghorn chickens, 219 

Legumes, 51, 55-57, 57 

Leicester sheep, 210 

Lemons, varieties, 307 

Lentils, 55 

Levees for irrigation, 36 

Libraries, 273 

Lice, 114, 130 

Life in the country, 272-275 



Light, effect on plants, 93 

Light soils, 10 

Limburger cheese, 182 

Lime in soils, 11, 52, 53 

Limestone soils, 13 

Lime-sulphur mixture, self-boiled, 136; 

formula, 321 
Lime-sulphur wash, 132; formula, 320 
Lincoln sheep, 209 
Live stock, 157-158 
Living plants in soil, 6 
Loamy soils, 12-13, 21 
Long-wooled breeds of sheep, 209-210 

Macadam roads, 256-258 

Magnesium, 49 

Mandarins, varieties, 308 

Manure, barnvard, 11, 12, 20, 50, 53, 53- 

51t, 60, 63, 157 
Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 190 
Manuring, green, 11, 12, 20, 22 
Marl, 53 
Marshes, 28 

Materials for road building, 252 
Maturing of seed, 77 
Meat breeds of chickens, 220, 221 
Medium-wooled breeds of sheep, 207-209 
Merino, 206 
Mildew, 139-140 
Milk, 167-183, 183-185, 325-329 
Milkweed, 119 

Mineral matter in soil, 1, 9, H, 186 
Minorcas, 219 

Miscible oils, 132; formula, 323-324 
Moisture, 16-21, 21-24, 37, 67, 68, 80-82, 87 
Mold, 115, 120 
Moldboard, 41, 42 
Moth, codling, 124-125, IW 
Muck, 28 
Mulch, 45, 143 
Mustang ponies, 200 
Mustard, wild, 118 

Natural type of landscape gardening, 265 

Nectar, 234 

Nectarines, varieties, 308 

Night hawks, 242 

Nitric acid, 74 

Nitrogen, 26, 49, 50-51, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 

141 
Nodules, 55 
Nutrients in feeding stuffs, 280-288 

Oak stem, 83 
Oat smut, 117 
Oiled roads, 256 
Oils, miscible, 132 
Oils, test for, 75 
Olives, varieties, 306 
Onions, 13 
Open drains, 27-28 
Oranges, varieties, 307 



INDEX 



337 



Orchard, H3-1-10 

Orchard diseases, IW 

Organic matter in soil, 1, 9 

Origin of horse, 194 

Origin of swine, 212 

Oriole, 241 

Osmosis, 81, 82 

Outlines on; corn, 78, 79; drainage, 30, 31; 

horses, ^03-20!,; irrigation, 39-1,0; milk, 

184-185; plant, 91,-95; plant enemies, li:2; 

pruning. 111; seeds, 78-79; tillage, 1,8; 

water in soil, 23-21,; soil formation, 9; 

strawberry, 11,8 
Ovary, 89 
Ovule, 89 
Oxford sheep, 209 
Oxygen, 7, 49 

Packing butter, 178 

Paris green, 113, 124, 128, 129; formulas, 

322-323 
Parsnip, 119 

Pasteurization of milk, 171, 183 
Path of food materials in stem, 84-85 
Pea, 55, 57, 65 
Peach, 134-136; varieties, 301-302; borer, 

135; Bordeaux mixture for, 318; yellows, 

136; rosette, 136 
Pears, 13; varieties, 298-299; blight, 115 
Percheron breed of horses, 194-195 
Percolation, 19-20 
Perfect flower, 90 
Petals, 89 

Phosphoric acid, 49, 51, 52, 56, 59, 62 
Phosphorus, 49 
Photosynthesis in leaves, 86 
Pigs, 212-216, 217 
Pistil, 89-90 
Pith, 83 
Planking, 46 
Plant, 6, 16, 50-52, 80-92, 92-95, 96-102, 

102-101,, 118-119, 121-122 
Plant enemies, 112-120, 120-122 
Plant foods, 44, 49-53, 53-5 i, 55-57, 57, 

86-87 
Plant lice, 114 
Planting apple trees, 124; forest trees, 156; 

berries, 142 
Plate germinator, 67 
Plowing, 41-45, 47, iS 
Plum, 136-140, 11,0; curculio, 137; gouger, 

138; tree aphis, 139; blossoms of, 88; va- 
rieties, 299-300 
Plumule, 65, 70 
Plymouth Rocks, 221, 222 
Poland China hogs, 213 
Polled Durham cattle, 164 
Pollen, 89, 91, 92, 93 
Pollination, 90, 91 
Pomelos, varieties, 308 
Ponies, 200 
Poplars, 83, 97 



Potash, 49, 52, oi, 56, 59, 62, 123, 135. 141, 

142 
Potassium, 49 
Potassium hydrate, 74 
Potassium sulphid formula, 322 
Potatoes, 113 
Potato scab, 117 
Poultry, 218-229 
Poultry house, 222-224 
Powdered milk, 172 
Powdery mildew, 139 
Preface, iii-vii 

Products of milk, 171-183, 183-185 
Propagation of plants, 96-102; 102-101, 
Proteid test, 74, 93, 167 
Protein, 186 

Pruning, 108-109, 110, 111, 124, 146 
Pumpkin seed, 66 
Pupa, 113 
Pure milk, 171 
Purslane, 118 

Quack grass, 119 
Quail, 241 

Quahty of milk, 168 
Queen bee, 233 
Queen cells, 232 
Quinces, varieties, 306 

Races of bees, 236-237 

Radishes, 54 

Raffia, 102 

Ragweed, 118 

Rainfall, 19 

Raised bed system of irrigation, 36-37 

Rarabouillet sheep, 207 

Raspberry, 96, UQ, 11,7, 11,8; varieties, 310 

Rations; for cattle, 187-190; for dairy cow, 

191-192; for horses, 203; for sheep, 211; 

for swine, 217 
Reservoirs for irrigation, 34-35 
Ripening of cream, 175 
Roads, 250-259, 259-260 
Roadster tvpe of horse, 197-199 
Rollers, leaf, 131 
Rolling and planking, 45-46, 1,7 
Root, 52, 54, 80-83, 106; grafting of, 100, 110 
Roquefort cheese, 182 
Roses, 97 
Rosette, 136, 139 
Rot, bitter, 133-134 
Rot, brown, 139 
Rotation of crops, 59-62, 62-6^ 
Round-headed apple tree borer, 126 
Runners on strawberrv; 102 
Rust, 115 

Saddle horses, 199 
Salts in soils, 13, 11,, 37 
Sand, 11,, 21, 22 
Sand dunes, 5 
Sandy loam, 12 



338 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



Sandy soils, 19, 4^2, 44 

San Jose scale, 131-132 

Sap-sucking insects, 113-114 

Scab, apple, 134 

Scab, potato, 117 

Scale, insects, 131-132 

Scheele's green, formula, 323 

School grounds, 269-270, 270-271 

Scion, 98, 99 

Score cards; for market milk, 325-326; for 
sanitary inspection of dairies, 327-329 

Scrub stock, 158 

Seeds; effect of drainage on germination of, 
29; effect of phosphoric acid in growth of, 
51; germination of, 65-78, 78-79; structure 
of, 65; vitality of, 69; impurities in, 69; 
depth to plant, 70-71; foods in, 71-72, 75; 
test for starches, proteids and sugars in, 
73-74; test for fats and oils in, 75; selection 
of seed as a means of improving plants, 
76, 77; mode of formation, 90 

Self-boiled lime sulphur mixture, 136; for- 
mula, 321 

Sepals, 88 

Shallow tillage, 47 

Sheep, 205-210, 210-211 

Shell roads, 256 

Shepherd's purse, 118 

Shetland ponies, 200 

Shoeing horses, 202 

Shorthorn cattle, 162, 164 

Shrubs, 268-269 

Silicon, 49 

Silks of corn, 91 

Small fruit, 141-146, 1^6-1 lt7 

Smut, 115, 117, 120 

Sodium, 49 

Sodium hydrate, 74 

Soil; formation, 1-7, 7-9; agents of formation, 
1; classes of, 10-14, Ih-lo; sandy, 10-11; 
clay, 11-12; humus in, 12; loams, 12-13; 
calcareous type, 13; alkali, 13, H, 30; tex- 
ture of, l!^, 25, 53; composition of i^; mois- 
ture in, 16-21, 21 -2 It, 37; green manuring 
of, 22; drainage of, 25-29, '-19-31; supply of 
nitrogen in, 50; poor soils and clover, 57; 
exhaustion of, 58-62, 62-61t; when to plow, 
42; soil suitable for trees, 105, 107; soil 
suitable for apple trees, 123; soil suitable 
for raspberries, 146 

Sorghum, 13 

Sparrow, 241 

Spiracles, 112 

Spores, 115, 2^0 

Spring plowing, 43 

Springs, use in irrigation, 33 

Stamen, 89 

Starch; test for, 73-74; manufacture in leaves, 
86 

Stem, 83-85; growth of, 83-84; path of foods 
in, 84-85; as storehouse for food material, 
85; growth of, 93; stem cutting, 97 



Stigma, 89 

Stings of bees, 235-236 

Stock, 98, 99, 100; on the farm, 157; feeding 

of, 186-190, 191-193 
Stomata, 86 

Storm water, use in irrigation, 33 
Stratification of soils, 4, S 
Strawberry, 141-145, l!,7-lhS; varieties, 309 
Streams, use in irrigation, 33 
Style, 89 

Styles of landscape gardening, 263-265 
Subsoil, 44 
Suffolk Punch, 197 
Sugar beets, 13 
Sugar in milk, 167 
Sugar-producing plants, 13 
Sugar test, 74, 167 
Sulphur, 49 

Sulphur and resin solution, formula, 321 
Supers, 230 
Surface of roads, 253 
Swallow, 242 

Swarming of bees, 234-235 
Sweet clover, 13 
Swift, 242 
Swine, 212-216, 217 
Systems of irrigation, 36-37 

Tanager, 241 

Tap root, 83 

Tassels of corn plant, 91 

Telephones, 273 

Telford roads, 258 

Temperature; effect on rock, 4; effect on 

germination, 68 
Tamworth hogs, 214 
Tent caterpillar, 128 
Testing milk, 183 
Texture of soil, lit, 25, 53 
Thistle, 119 

Thoroughbred horse, 199 
Thrushes, 241 
Tile drains, 28-29 
Tillage, 41-46; kG-ltS 
Tobacco, 58 

Tobacco decoction, 145; formula, 324 
Tools on the farm, 245-247, 2it7, 248, 2It9 
Transpiration of moisture, 20-21, 85, 87 
Transplanting, 97, 105-109, 110-111 
Trees on the lawn, 268 
Trotting horses, 197-199 
Tubercles, 55 
Turkeys, 227 
Twig blight, 132 
Twining vines, 93 

Underground drains, 28-29 
Underground stems, 85 

Value of forests, 149 

Varieties of fruits for different sections, 

292-311 
Vegetation, decaying, in soils, 7 . 



INDEX 



339 



Vetch, 55, 57 
Vines, 93, 269 
Virco, 241 
Vitality of seeds, 69 

Warbler, 241, 242 

Water; in the soil, 16-21; ^i -24,". evaporation 
of, 16; free or ground, 16; capillary, 16-17; 
film or hygroscopic, 17; supply in irrigating, 
33-34; methods of applying in irrigating, 
35-37; transpired by leaves, 85, 86; water 
table, 16 

W'atermelons, 53 

Waxed grafting cloth, 100 

Wax for grafting, 99 

W'eb worm, 128 

Weeds, 118-120, 121;^ classes of, 118-119; 
methods of destroving, 118-120; annual, 
118; biennial, 118-119; perennial, 119-120; 
table of, 312-317 

Wells, use in irrigation, 33 

Welsh ponies, 200 

Whale oil soap wash, formula, 323 

Wheat, 58 



Wheat smut, 117 

Whey cheese, 182 

Whippoorwill, 242 

White lead, 109, 134 

Wild mustard, 118 

Wild oats, 118 

Wild parsnip, 119 

Willow, 83, 97, 103 

Wind as a pollen carrier, 92 

Wintering bees, 237 

Wood ashes, 54, 142 

Woodlot, 154 

Woodpecker, 241 

Worker bees, 233 

Workmanship in road building, 253 

W'orm, canker, 129 

Worm, fall web, 128 

Wren, 241 

W>andottes, 222 

Yellow dock, 119 
Yellows, 136, 139 
Yield of fruit, ll,Cy 
Yorkshire hogs, 214 



C 194 



JUL 17 1912 



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